El Salvador: Chronology of Events: November 1994 - December 1996

 

GLOSSARY

ADC       Democratic Peasant Alliance (Alianza Democrática Campensina)

ADEFAES             Association of Demobilized Armed Forces Members (Asociación de Desmobilizados de la Fuerza Armada de El Salvador)

AEGES   Association of Former Combatants and War Victims

ALFAES                Association of Disabled Personnel From the Armed Forces (Asociación de Lisiados de la Fuerza Armada de El Salvador)

ANDES  National Teacher's Association of El Salvador (Asociación Nacional des Educadores de El Salvador)

ANIS      Salvadoran National Indigenous Association (Asociación Nacional Indígena Salvadoreña)

ANTEL  National Telecommunications Company (Administración Nacional de Telecomunicaciones El Salvador)

ARENA Nationalist Republican Alliance (Alianza Republicana Nacionalista)

ATMOP Public Works Union (Asociación de Trabajadores del Ministeria de Obras Publicas)

CDHES   Commission for Human Rights (non-governmental)

CEAT     Executive Transitory Anti-Crime Commando (Comando Ejecutivo Antidelincuencial Transitorio)

CISPES   Committee in Solidarity with the People of El Salvador

FMLN    Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front (Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional)

FENASTRA          The National Federation of Unions of Salvadoran Workers (Federación Nacional de Sindicatos de Trabajadores de El Salvador)

FURODA               Roberto d'Aubuisson Nationalist Force (Fuerza Nacionalista Roberto d'Aubuisson)

MINUSAL             United Nations Mission for El Salvador (from 1 May 1995 until 30 April 1996) (Misión de la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para el Cumpliemiento de los Acuerdos de Paz)

ONUSAL               United Nations Observer Mission in El Salvador (until 30 April 1995)

ONUV    United Nations Verification Office (after 30 April 1996)

PLD        Liberal Democratic Party (Partido Liberal Democrático)

PN           National Police (Policía Nacional)

PNC        National Civilian Police (Policía Nacional Civil)

PPDH     Office of the Human Rights Ombudsman (Procuraduria para la Defensa de los Derechos Humanos)

VPR        Popular Revolutionary Voice (Voz Popular Revolucionaria)

MAP

See original

INTRODUCTION

This chronology updates the March 1995 DIRB Question and Answer Series paper entitled El Salvador: Chronology of Events August 1993-November 1994. It outlines the reappearance of death squads and the growth of vigilante violence and labour unrest. It chronicles developments in the implementation of law enforcement and judicial and land reforms agreed to in the 1992 peace accords. It notes select reports from United Nations observers, governmental human rights monitors and non-governmental organizations which, although not events in themselves, pertain to the current human rights situation in El Salvador. For background to events described in this paper, please consult the April 1994 DIRB Question and Answer Series paper entitled El Salvador: Impact of the 1992 Peace Accords, as well as relevant DIRB Responses to Information Requests available in the Regional Documentation Centres.

CHRONOLOGY

1994

2 November

United Nations Observer Mission in El Salvador (ONUSAL) calls on the Supreme Court to dismiss 50 judges it says are corrupt or "inept," based on reports of human rights violations the mission has received over the last three years (CAR 18 Nov. 1994, 4). The Supreme Court, elected in July 1994, calls the list "interference"; so far, it has dismissed only three judges (ibid.).

4 November

According to Central America Report, three National Civilian Police (PNC), "open fire" on a car carrying two teenagers during a car chase in San Miguel department because they believe the teenagers are about to throw a grenade (2 Dec. 1994, 8). They kill one teenager and seriously wound the other (ibid.). The teenagers reportedly were fleeing police because the driver did not have a driver's license (ibid.). A later investigation uncovers that one officer "planted the grenade in the car to justify the killing" (ibid.). The three officers are charged (ibid.).

5 November

In San Salvador, Wilfredo Valencia Palacios, deputy director of the Oscar Romero AIDS Project in El Salvador, is threatened with death by two unidentified men who Amnesty International reports are believed to "belong to an anti-gay death squad" (Dec. 1994, 1). Shots are fired as Valencia Palacios flees (ibid.).[1]1

10-11 November

David Faustino Merino Ramírez, coordinator of land transfers in Usulután department for the Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front (FMLN)[2]2, is shot dead in San Salvador by three unidentified men (AI 16 Nov. 1994; Xinhua 11 Nov. 1994; CAR 25 Nov.1994, 7). Another FMLN leader and a municipal politician involved in the land transfer programme are wounded in the same attack (AI 16 Nov. 1994; IPS 14 Nov. 1994). ONUSAL Human Rights Director Diego García Sayan alleges that the shooting "may have had political motivations" (IPS 14 Nov. 1994), while Amnesty International describes the killing as similar to "the politically motivated 'death squad' operations of the recent past" (16 Nov. 1994). Salvador Sánchez Cerén, secretary general of the Popular Liberation Forces (FPL)[3]3 suggests a group of former soldiers linked to landowners do not want to see former FMLN guerrillas receive their land (IPS 14 Nov. 1994).

14 November

The PNC and the armed forces open fire on bus drivers blocking a highway in San Miguel department during a strike (CAR 2 Dec. 1994, 8; Mesoamerica Dec. 1994, 3). Three people are reported killed, between 15 and 20 are wounded and some 13 are arrested (ibid.; SSCDT 15 Nov. 1994). According to two sources, it is unclear who fired first (Mesoamerica Dec. 1994, 3; SSCDT 15 Nov. 1994), although Central America Report writes that the police say afterward that the strikers fired first (2 Dec. 1994, 8). President Armando Calderón Sol of the ruling Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA) claims responsibility for calling out the troops, in violation of the constitution, but says that in a similar situation he would do it again because "the PNC was unable to handle the situation" (SSRC 17 Nov. 1994; Mesoamerica Dec. 1994, 3).

PNC Inspector General Eulogio de Jésus Guerra Payés announces an investigation into 15 reported cases of "police abuse," including the PNC shooting of two teenagers in San Miguel on 4 November 1994 (CAR 2 Dec. 1994, 8).

23 November

The UN Security Council announces that ONUSAL will remain in the country until 30 April 1995 (UN 23 Nov. 1994; Keesing's Nov. 1994, 40273; Europa 1995 1995, 1084). The Security Council decision reflects its "concern over delays in implementing several elements of the accord," including the creation of a civilian police force, judicial and electoral reforms and the transfer of lands (UN 23 Nov. 1994; Federal News Service 28 Nov. 1994; Mesoamerica Dec. 1994, 3).

29 November

Finance Minister Ricardo Montenengro and Agriculture Minister Carlos Mejía Alférez resign to face charges of influence peddling and tax evasion (SSCDT 29 Nov. 1994; IPS 2 Dec. 1994; Keesing's Nov. 1994, 40273). Media sources report that the resignation of government officials to face charges is "unprecedented" (IPS 2 Dec. 1994; SSCDT 29 Nov. 1994).

December

The Black Shadow (Sombra Negra), a clandestine group whose members are said to hide their faces behind masks and wear uniforms like those of the PNC, begins operation by killing three reputed gang members in San Miguel department (NotiSur 4 Aug. 1995; Country Reports 1995 1996, 407-08; IPS 24 Apr. 1995). Described by Country Reports 1995 as "the most notorious vigilante organization" (1996, 407-08), the Black Shadow says it intends to wipe out gang crime (AP 9 May 1995) and undertake "social cleansing" (IPS 31 July 1995).

1995

3 January

Masked members of the Association of Demobilized Armed Forces (ADEFAES) demonstrate in front of the Legislative Assembly in San Salvador to pressure the government to fulfil peace promises of benefits, training and land (Mesoamerica Feb. 1995, 5). Completion of the land transfer programme, for example, has been delayed until 30 April 1995 (Fundación Flor de Izote Mar.-Apr. 1995).

12 January

The PNC officially takes over all public security functions from the demobilized National Police (PN) (San Francisco Chronicle 14 Jan. 1995; Mesoamerica Feb. 1995, 5; UPI 14 Mar. 1995).

24 January

The ADEFAES begins nationwide protests when approximately 6,000 former soldiers armed with sticks and machetes occupy the Legislative Assembly, the Ministry of Finance and another government building, blocking surrounding roads and taking about 2,500 workers hostage (Keesing's Jan. 1995, 40355; SSRC 25 Jan. 1995; AFP 26 Jan. 1995; Mesoamerica Feb. 1995, 6). At least one protester is killed and two others are wounded during an exchange of gun fire with police (AFP 26 Jan. 1995; SSCDT 24 Jan. 1995a; Keesing's Jan. 1995, 40355; Mesoamerica Feb. 1995, 6).

The PNC Anti-Narcotics Division begins strike action, occupying its own headquarters (SSCDT 24 Jan. 1995c; The Christian Science Monitor 3 Feb. 1995; Keesing's Feb. 1995, 40403). "Hundreds" of squad members (Keesing's Feb. 1995, 40403) are protesting the dismissal, in keeping with the peace accords, of 71 colleagues who were fired because they had been members of the PN Anti-Narcotics Administration (IPS 10 Feb. 1995; The Christian Science Monitor 3 Feb. 1995; SSCDT 24 Jan. 1995c).[4]4

26 January

The ADEFAES ends its occupation of the Legislative Assembly and other government buildings and releases the remaining 13 deputies held hostage once the government reiterates its commitment to keep its peace accord promises (SSRC 26 Jan. 1995b; AFP 26 Jan. 1995; Keesing's Jan. 1995, 40355; Mesoamerica Feb. 1995, 6). On 25 January 1995, representatives of most major political parties issued a joint statement condemning the ADEFAES action and calling for the release of the remaining hostages (SSRC 26 Jan. 1995a).

Late January

The non-governmental El Salvador Commission for Human Rights (CDHES) issues a report on the status of human rights in 1994, concluding that 1994 saw "little progress" in guaranteeing individual rights (SSCDT 24 Jan. 1995b). The report notes that in 1994 death squads were responsible for 16 murders, "15 of which involved opposition leaders" (ibid.).

2 February

The Legislative Assembly empowers the PNC to arrest anyone wearing a mask or carrying a weapon at a demonstration (Xinhua 3 Feb.1995; CAR 17 Mar. 1995b, 6). Those found guilty could face six months to eight years in prison (ibid.). According to news reports, the law was passed unanimously in expectation of protests to an economic reform package planned by the government (ibid.).

3 February

The ARENA government introduces to the Legislative Assembly an economic reform plan that would privatize state industries and entail large public sector lay-offs, tax increases and a fixed exchange rate (Keesing's Feb. 1995, 40403; Mesoamerica Mar. 1995, 6). The National Federation of Unions of Salvadoran Workers (FENASTRAS) and some 50 other groups demonstrate in San Salvador against the plan (CAR 17 Mar. 1995b, 6).

4 February

José Natividad Majano, the ARENA-supported mayor of Osicala in Morazán department, is murdered by six unidentified people (CAR 24 Feb. 1995, 3; Mesoamerica Mar. 1995, 5; La Republica 8 Feb. 1995; Country Reports 1995 1996, 408). Juan José Domenech, ARENA party president, calls the killing the work of death squads, citing death threats recently received by eight other Morazán mayors and legislators (IPS 9 Feb. 1995; CAR 24 Feb. 1995, 3; Mesoamerica Mar. 1995, 5). The PNC reports it has found "eight armed groups" in this previously FMLN-controlled region (Mesoamerica Mar. 1995, 4).

8-9 February

Workers occupy factories in the San Marcos export production zone (maquila) after the Madarin International Company fires approximately 1,000 workers for trying to unionize (Proceso 15 Mar. 1995; CAR 17 Mar. 1995a, 2; CISPES Action Alert 21 Mar. 1995; Mesoamerica Apr. 1995, 10). The strikers are protesting poor work conditions and wages as well as physical and sexual abuse, accusing foreign-owned companies of bribing labour inspectors (CISPES Action Alert 21 Mar. 1995; CAR 17 Mar. 1995a, 2).

14 February

Violence erupts between the PNC anti-riot squad [5]5 and approximately 600 former soldiers during a demonstration in front of President Calderón Sol's presidential palace, interrupting a news conference being held inside with Spanish prime minister Felipe Gonzalez (AFP 14 Feb. 1995; SSRC 14 Feb. 1995; SSCDT 15 Feb. 1995; Mesoamerica Mar. 1995, 5) Anti-riot police spray tear gas and rubber bullets into the crowd of demonstrators who are seeking peace accords benefits, injuring "at least" two people (AFP 14 Feb. 1995; SSRC 14 Feb. 1995; Mesoamerica Mar. 1995, 5). According to Salvadoran television, the police do not respond until demonstrators attack by turning over a police car and capturing two agents (SSCDT 15 Feb. 1995).

17 February

Kirio Waldo Salgado, leader of the right-wing Liberal Democratic Party (PLD) asks the Attorney General to charge 15 former officials with corruption, including former ARENA president Alfredo Cristiani (Reuters 17 Feb. 1995; Mesoamerica Mar. 1995, 4). Salgado alleges that the former officials were involved in "illegal dealings, influence peddling and a Mafia-style conspiracy" (see 25 July 1995) (ibid.).

18 February

The Anti-Narcotics Division ends its strike after 28 days (CAR 17 Mar. 1995b, 7). According to Central America Report, 168 agents resign in sympathy with those dismissed (ibid.).

28 February

Carlos Molina Fonseca completes his term as Human Rights Ombudsman (PPDH) (Fundación Flor de Izote Mar.-Apr. 1995; Mesoamerica Apr. 1995, 11). No one is immediately appointed to take his place as government and opposition parties haggle over the appointment (ibid.)

1 March

Export production zone worker Julia Quintanilla dies of "acute gastroenteritis" at a San Marcos factory when her employer refuses to allow her to leave work to see a doctor (CAR 17 Mar. 1995b, 7; Proceso 15 Mar. 1995; CISPES Action Alert 21 Mar. 1995; Mesoamerica Apr. 1995, 10). Later, some 20 workers who attend her funeral during work hours are fired (CAR 17 Mar. 1995b, 7; Proceso 15 Mar. 1995; Mesoamerica Apr. 1995, 10). Two sources report they are also beaten (Proceso 15 Mar. 1995; CISPES Action Alert 21 Mar. 1995). Several days later on 8 March 1995, some 300 workers, mostly women, march to denounce their work conditions (CAR 17 Mar. 1995b, 6) and to demand that the 20 workers be rehired (Mesoamerica Apr. 1995, 10).

7 March

The government creates the Superior Council of Labour with business, union and government representation to seek an end to labour unrest (CAR 17 Mar. 1995b, 7; Fundación Flor de Izote Mar.-Apr. 1995; Mesoamerica Apr. 1995, 10).

9 March

In Geneva, the UN Human Rights Commission removes El Salvador from its permanent watch list, citing improvements in the human rights situation (CAR 17 Mar. 1995c, 8; Country Reports 1995 1996, 407).

The Legislative Assembly passes Decree 290 to speed up the land transfer process for those with land lacking clear title or legal documentation (Share Foundation 28 Apr. 1995). Under the decree, which was "designed to move the process forward while documentation issues are being worked out," landowners without deeds will be issued a legally binding "promise of sale" and the Land Bank will deposit 25 per cent of the sale price into a trust account at negotiation, 25 per cent when the land is measured and the rest at completion (ibid.). According to ONUSAL, only 44 per cent of land slated for transfer has been handed over since 1992 (CAR 17 Mar. 1995c, 8).

13 March

Some 5,000 armed forces troops are sent to rural "hot spots" throughout El Salvador to help the PNC fight the increase in common and organized crime (UPI 14 Mar. 1995; Proceso 22 Mar. 1995; Latinamerica Press 8 June 1995, 5). Opposition officials criticize the deployment as a violation of the peace accords which ordered the military PN replaced by a civilian force (UPI 14 Mar. 1995; Proceso 22 Mar. 1995). President Calderón Sol is quoted as saying, "I cannot allow life to be trampled on in El Salvador. We must preserve it, whether or not some politician likes it" (ibid.). According to an Attorney General's report, there were 9,135 homicides in 1994, more than twice the number of deaths in the last year of the civil war (ibid. 22 Mar. 1995; CAR 19 May 1995a 2; Mesoamerica Apr. 1995, 11).

15 March

Sources report that a warrant has been issued for the arrest of Carlos Romero Alfaro, a former PN investigator who joined the PNC (The Houston Chronicle 15 Sept. 1995; The Miami Herald 9 Oct. 1995; La Lettre de la FIDH 15-22 June 1995, 8). Romero, also known as "Sergent Saldana" (ibid.), is wanted in connection with the October 1993 murder of FMLN leader Francisco Velis (The Houston Chronicle 15 Sept. 1995; The Miami Herald 9 Oct. 1995).

20 March

Police arrest Juan José Huezo, secretary general of FENASTRAS, as he sits at a negotiating table in the Jatex factory in the El Progresso export production zone (CISPES Action Alert 21 Mar. 1995; CAR 24 Mar. 1995, 8). Huezo is charged with "agitating workers into strikes" (ibid. 24 Mar. 1995, 8) and is, according to one source, beaten by police (ibid. 21 Mar. 1995).

21 March

According to Central America Report, anti-riot police forcibly remove striking workers from the Delicias factory in a San Salvador export production zone, arresting 10 and injuring others (24 Mar. 1995, 8).

24 March

Victoria Marina Alvarez de Avilés is elected Human Rights Ombudsman for a three year term (Fundación Flor de Izote Mar.-Apr. 1995; Mesoamerica Apr. 1995, 10). Human Rights Watch describes her election as "perhaps the most encouraging development in the overall human rights situation in 1995" (Dec. 1995, 92). De Avilés, a lawyer, is elected after a 23 day delay because two other candidates, protesting "apparent corruption in the process," would not run (Mesoamerica Apr. 1995, 10; Fundación Flor de Izote Mar.-Apr. 1995).

29 March

In San Salvador, the PNC fires rubber bullets and tear gas at about 1,000 members of the Association of Disabled Personnel From the Armed Forces (ALFAES) as they are "peacefully marching" toward the hotel where President Calderón Sol is hosting the Central American Presidential Summit (Mesoamerica May 1995, 2; AFP 29 Mar. 1995; Keesing's Mar. 1995, 40450). About 200 disabled former guerrillas and soldiers are arrested and between 9 and 16 are wounded, including, according to a Red Cross report, 7 children (Mesoamerica May 1995, 2; AFP 29 Mar. 1995).

1 April

The ARENA government and the FMLN agree to a revised timetable for fulfilling outstanding peace accords commitments after a meeting with UN Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali (AFP 2 Apr. 1995; Mesoamerica May 1995, 2; Share Foundation 28 Apr. 1995). Under the agreement, 60 per cent of the land promised to former FMLN fighters will be distributed by the end of April 1995 and the rest by the end of October 1995 (AFP 2 Apr. 1995).

Early April

PNC Inspector General Eulogio Guerra leaves his post after only six months (CAR 19 May 1995b, 8; LARR: Caribbean 18 May 1995; Country Reports 1995 1996, 407). Vice-Minister of Public Security Hugo Barrera says Guerra failed to "follow correct procedure" in investigations but, according to Central America Report, Guerra says he is being forced to resign because of his investigation of PNC corruption (19 May 1995b, 8).

8 April

According to the San Salvador daily La Prensa Gráfica, President Calderón Sol and a representative of ALFAES signed an accord in the presence of ONUSAL Chief Enrique ter Horst to guarantee pensions and compensation to disabled former soldiers and guerrillas (8 Apr. 1995).

26 April

The Executive Transitory Anti-Crime Commando (CEAT) issues a media release announcing its existence as a vigilante group targeting "common criminals, union members and demobilized members of the [FMLN] guerrillas" (Latinamerica Press 8 June 1995, 5; CAR 19 May 1995a, 2). The CEAT claims it will operate only until "an efficient system of public security exists" (ibid., 2).

28 April

The UN Security Council decides that ONUSAL will continue operation until the end of May 1996 as the scaled-down UN Mission for El Salvador (MINUSAL) led by Special Representative Enrique ter Horst (UN 6 Oct. 1995, para 3; AI 1996, 143; Houston Chronicle 29 Apr. 1995). The Security Council calls ONUSAL an "indisputable success," noting that "El Salvador, after being a country divided by conflict, has transformed into a democratic and peaceful nation" (Mesoamerica May 1995, 1).

8-9 May

In a media release, the Black Shadow threatens to kill six judges it accuses of corruption (Mesoamerica June 1995, 5; AP 9 May 1995; CAR 19 May 1995a, 2). The next day, the death squad kills four reported gang members in the impoverished Soyapango district of San Salvador (AP 9 May 1995; CAR 19 May 1995a, 2; The Fresno Bee 21 May 1995). President Calderón Sol orders the PNC to investigate, although Vice-Minister of Public Security Barrera blames youth gangs for crimes attributed to death squads, calling the clandestine group a "joke in bad taste" (CAR 19 May 1995a, 2). The media describe the Black Shadow as a "death squad" made up of "people with ties to public security; professional marksmen and explosive experts" (ibid.; Latinamerica Press 8 June 1995, 5), while the CDHES alleges the groups gets "tacit support" from the police and armed forces (IPS 24 Apr. 1995; Mesoamerica June 1995, 6). The Black Shadow has reportedly killed between 17 and 25 people since December 1994 (CAR 11 Aug. 1995, 5; Latinamerica Press 8 June 1995, 5; Mesoamerica June 1995, 5).

17 May

UPI reports that a unidentified woman under ONUSAL protection has testified in court that she witnessed former PN agent Carlos Romero and three other men plan the killing of FMLN leader Francisco Velis (17 May 1995).

24 May

The CEAT sends letters to Legislative Assembly members of different parties in which it threatens to kill them because they are "corrupt" (La Prensa Gráfica 24 May 1995; LARR: Caribbean 22 June 1995, 3). On 27 May, the San Salvador daily El Mundo publishes a media release from CEAT stating its intention to kill members of FENASTRAS and the National Teacher's Association (ANDES) as well as common criminals (El Rescate 31 May 1995). CEAT is involved in the killing of approximately 20 "alleged criminals" over the past six months (LARR: Caribbean 22 June 1995, 3). CEAT declares itself "a commando for public security and order that will watch over citizens" (El Rescate 31 May 1995).

3 June

InterPress Service writes that, according to numbers collected by the Center for Women's Studies, in the first third of 1995 reported cases of physical, psychological and sexual abuse of women and children rose 200 per centover the number reported in the same period of 1994 (3 June 1995). The director of the Association of Salvadoran Women charges that "more than 80 per cent of the female population in El Salvador is, at some point, the victim of rights violations, ranging from intimidation to death threats" (ibid.).

4 June

President Calderón Sol announces that the PNC's force will be increased from 8,000 to 20,000 by the end of 1996, doubling the government's previous objective (CAR 9 June 1995, 8; LAWR 15 June 1995, 264; HRW Dec. 1995, 91). Calderón Sol also announces the creation of a Ministry of Public Security to help in the fight against crime (CAR 9 June 1995, 8).

6 June

The UN accepts El Salvador's ratification of the Optional Protocol of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (UN Apr. 1996). According to Country Reports 1995, the Legislative Assembly had voted unanimously in March to recognize the "compulsory jurisdiction of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights" (Mar. 1996, 407).

24 June

Three armed men reportedly break into the San Salvador office of the National Foundation for HIV-AIDS Prevention, Education and Control (FUNDASIDA) threatening to kill Executive Director Franscisco Carrillo, who is not present at the time (AI 3 July 1995; CISPES Action Alert 3 July 1995; UN 25 Jan. 1996, para 181). The Executive Director and his receptionist have allegedly received threatening telephone calls as well (AI 3 July 1995). The armed men seize computers and confidential files before fleeing (AI 7 July 1995; CISPES Action Alert 3 July 1995).

6 July

The Black Shadow threatens to kill members of "Among Friends," a homosexual group that meets regularly at the FUNDASIDA office (AI 7 July 1995; Latinamerica Press 20 July 1995, 7).

14 July

According to Mesoamerica, anti-riot police use pepper spray to put down a strike by Rosales Hospital workers who are protesting several changes, including privatization of the San Salvador hospital (Aug. 1995, 6). A few days later, anti-riot police use rubber bullets, night sticks, tear gas and a light tank to break up a strike by workers at the National Administration of Aqueducts and Sewers (ibid.). Some 15,000 members of the Public Works union (ATMOP) are also on strike to pressure the government to keep promises of overtime pay and training (ibid.).

20 July

In San Miguel department, the PNC Organized Crime Unit begins Operation Ogre, a "crackdown" on the Black Shadow, searching homes and arresting at least 12 people ( Austin American-Statesman 23 July 1995; CAR 11 Aug. 1995, 5-6; UPI 22 July 1995; Mesoamerica Aug. 1995, 5). During the investigation, Mario Bettaglio, San Miguel governor for ARENA, declares the Black Shadow a "necessary evil" (La Prensa Gráfica 27 July 1995; The Washington Post 30 July 1995; IPS 31 July 1995; AP 27 July 1995), describing it as the "Robin Hood of the people"— a remark President Calderón Sol condemns (The Washington Post 30 July 1995; La Prensa Gráfica 27 July 1995).

24 July

A MINUSAL report on the progress of the land transfer programme indicates that it is 62 per cent complete with 7,458 former PN agents and 19,800 former soldiers having received "the compensation they are due" (CAR 18 Aug. 1995, 2).

25 July

Former president Cristiani is acquitted of corruption in the case put forward by PLD leader Kirio Waldo Salgado (see 17 February 1995) (La Prensa Gráfica 25 July 1995).

26 July

The PNC charges sixteen alleged Black Shadow members and detain fourteen, including four PNC members (AP 27 July 1995; IPS 31 July 1995; The Washington Post 30 July 1995; HRW Dec. 1995, 92). Charges include "premeditated homicide" and "criminal association" (AP 27 July 1995). Sources report that all four PNC officers are from San Miguel department; one is Deputy Commissioner Cesar Flores-Murillo (The Washington Post 30 July 1995; CAR 11 Aug. 1995, 6).

Public Security Minister Barrera announces the creation of "Neighbourhood Groups for Social Welfare, "patrols that will start in the crime-plagued Ahuachapán department (CAR 11 Aug. 1995, 6; LAWR 24 Aug. 1995, 378; NotiSur 4 Aug. 1995). Although the FMLN warns that the patrols could become like the paramilitary groups that operated during the civil war (ibid.), Barrera says they "are not para-police organisations, will not bear arms nor will they carry out any of the functions of the police " (LAWR 24 Aug. 1995, 378).

28 July

Former guerrilla Eustasio Fuentes is killed when protesting former combatants clash with the PNC on a Usulutan highway (CAR 18 Aug. 1995, 1; La Prensa Gráfica 29 July 1995). The convoy of 600 protesters had been heading to San Salvador to press for the fulfilment of land transfers (CAR 18 Aug. 1995, 1).

Xinhua reports that over a hundred former guerrillas and soldiers occupied the Rosales Hospital while others gathered around the National Assembly (28 July 1995). Public Security Minister Barrera blames the FMLN for instigating the violence, alleging that it is trying to destabilize the government by organizing strikes and demonstrations (La Prensa Gráfica 29 July 1995).

7 August

In San Salvador, ADEFAES members occupy the Salvadoran Institute of Agrarian Transformation building for six hours, demanding that former soldiers be given larger loans without having to provide guarantees (CAR 18 Aug. 1995, 2). The former soldiers leave under pressure by the "presence of anti-riot police with an order to evict" (ibid.).Two weeks later, on 22 August 1995, Agriculture Minister Oscar Manuel Gutiérrez announces that land transfers to former soldiers will be accelerated to demonstrate "the will of the government to attend to the demands" of ADEFAES(ibid. 25 Aug. 1995, 8).

14 August

According to Mesoamerica, the government announces its intention to sign the Inter-American Convention Against Violence Towards Women (Sept. 1995, 4). Country Reports 1995 reports that the government ratified the convention in 1995 (Mar. 1996, 412).

23 August

A clandestine group calling itself the Popular Revolutionary Voice (VPR) claims responsibility for burning three buses to protest recent fare increases (Proceso 30 Aug. 1995; Mesoamerica Sept. 1995, 3). In a media release, the VPR says it targeted buses because bus owners are "mostly military" and lobbied for the fare increases (Proceso 30 Aug. 1995). The VPR warns it will act again against the government and anyone else "who takes advantage of the Salvadoran people" (ibid.).

Late August

According to Proceso, the Attorney General charges the president and four board members of ADEFAES with "crimes against public order and the state" (ibid.)

30 August

Public Security Minister Barrera announces the appointment of Victor Valle, a former guerrilla, to PNC Inspector General (Proceso 6 Sept. 1995; CAR 15 Sept. 1995, 7). Barrera also announces the creation of an Assistant PNC Inspector General and reforms to the rules for the internal evaluation of the PNC, innovations the FMLN challenges as unconstitutional (CAR 29 Sept. 1995, 2). The appointments come after what Central America Report describes as a six-month long "tug of war" between Barrera and Human Rights Ombudsman de Avilés over who had the power to name the inspector general (15 Sept. 1995, 7).

2 September

According to the San Salvador newspaper Diario de Hoy, several PNC agents kick Adriano Vilanova to death in a field after stopping him on his way home from a bar (CAR 29 Sept. 1995, 1). Vilanova was said to be a suspect in a fatal hit and run accident (Country Reports 1995 1996, 408). Police reportedly do not investigate when Vilanova's body is found in a field, only responding after an account of the incident is broadcast on television(CAR 29 Sept. 1995, 1). According to Country Reports 1995, 19 PNC agents are later arrested in connection with the incident (1996, 408).

12 September

About 60 riot police use tear gas to force striking social security workers out of the Atlacatl Medical Unit, a San Salvador hospital, which they had occupied to demand wage increases and to protest violations to their collective agreement (Reuters 12 Sept. 1995; Christian Science Monitor 14 Sept. 1995; Mesoamerica Oct. 1995, 7; Notimex 12 Sept. 1995). Approximately 150 strikers require "tear gas relief " (Reuters 12 Sept. 1995; Libération 14 Sept. 1995, 8), and according to two sources, witnesses saw PNC agents throw tear gas into an ambulance removing two overcome strikers (ibid.; Reuters 12 Sept. 1995). Two other sources report that the PNC beat strikers (Latinamerica Press 26 Oct. 1995, 4; Mesoamerica Oct. 1995, 7). Union leader Jorge Amaya is arrested with several other union members (Reuters 12 Sept. 1995; Libération 14 Sept. 1995, 8; ACAN 12 Sept. 1995). The PNC says it responded with force because the strikers had fired guns (Reuters 12 Sept. 1995). Fifteen social service union members are later released on 2 October after the judge rules they had been "wrongly captured and incarcerated" (Mesoamerica Nov. 1995, 3).

Also in San Salvador, riot police use tear gas to end a strike by telecommunications workers, injuring "at least 12" (Mesoamerica Oct. 1995, 7; Notimex 12 Sept. 1995; Reuters 12 Sept. 1995). Approximately 2,000 telecommunications workers had been on strike to protest President Calderón Sol's plans to privatize the national telecommunications company (ANTEL) (ibid.; Mesoamerica Oct. 1995, 7).

21 September

About half of the Legislative Assembly takes strike action by refusing to vote in committee or legislative sessions to pressure the ruling ARENA party to approve promised electoral reforms (LAWR 5 Oct. 1995, 456; Mesoamerica Oct. 1995, 8). A bill tabled to create a single national civil registry of voters was not approved on 14 September 1995 as scheduled because of what President Calderón Sol called at the time "disparities of a technical-legal nature" (La Prensa Gráfica 25 Sept. 1995; CAR 13 Oct. 1995, 4).

22 September

The Black Shadow claims responsibility for the murder of four San Miguel teenagers said to be gang members by leaving letters at the murder scenes (AFP 23 Sept. 1995; La Prensa Gráfica 25 Sept. 1995; The Miami Herald 9 Oct. 1995). According to a news report, "eight hooded individuals" grabbed three teenagers from a shop and shot them in a football field while the other teenager was shot in another part of San Miguel (AFP 23 Sept. 1995). On 25 September 1995, La Prensa Gráfica reports that President Calderón Sol has ordered the PNC and the Ministry of Public Security to "do whatever is necessary" to eliminate the vigilante violence (25 Sept. 1995).

October

Carlos Romero Alfaro flees El Salvador (The Miami Herald 9 Oct. 1995; La Lettre de la FIDH 15-22 June 1995, 8), reportedly with the help of PNC officers (Houston Chronicle 15 Sept. 1995). According to The Miami Herald, Romero was not arrested and continued to work as a PNC officer after the warrant for his arrest was issued because, according to a PNC spokesman, Romero was "always surrounded by heavily armed security" (9 Oct. 1995). In September 1995 Alfaro was in US custody awaiting deportation (ibid.).

5 October

In the Santa Ana export production zone, 90 female workers at the Encasa y Exmodica factory, owned by President Calderón Sol's sister, are fired and given only half the severance pay to which they are entitled (International Solidarity Committee 9 Oct. 1995; Mesoamerica Nov. 1995, 3). According to Mesoamerica the firing of export production zone workers after a year is a "common" way to avoid paying benefits (ibid.).

14 October

The Legislative Assembly passes Decree 471, the Temporary Economic Compensation Law for Public Sector Employees, to cut 15,000 public sector jobs by January 1996 (CAR 17 Nov. 1995, 6; Mesoamerica Nov. 1995, 3). Some 2,000 government workers march in San Salvador to protest the law as unconstitutional (ibid.). Several unions file a case with the Supreme Court, claiming the law is politically motivated and targets a "disproportionate number of union leaders and grassroots activists" (CAR 17 Nov. 1995, 6).

22-23 October

Led by the Democratic Peasant Alliance (ADC) several peasants occupy several farms in Sonsonate, Ahuachapan and La Libertad departments to protest the slow pace of land transfers (Weekly News Update on the Americas 29 Oct. 1995; Proceso 1 Nov. 1995). The ADC charges the government with failing to comply with article 205 of the constitution which stipulates that excess land from properties over 245 hectares should be expropriated and redistributed (CAR 10 Nov. 1995, 3; Proceso 1 Nov. 1995).

24 October

Salvadoran media release a statement from a clandestine group calling itself the Nationalist Guerrilla Force of Free El Salvador (Fuerza Guerilla Nacionalista de El Salvador Libre) (Diario Latino 26 Oct. 1995; LAWR 9 Nov. 1995, 516; SSCDT 24 Aug. [sic] 1995). The group says it is the "only organized political-military option of the great impoverished masses, to fight against the ruthless attack of capitalism" and calls on workers, peasants, students and intellectuals to fight against the ARENA government (Diario Latino 26 Oct. 1995).

25 October

The government sends the PNC and anti-riot police to occupied farms in Sonsonate, Ahuachapan and La Libertad departments "to be ready to evict" the occupying peasants (Weekly News Update on the Americas 29 Oct. 1995). The peasants leave the farms after the PPDH and MINUSAL intervene and all parties agree to the creation of the National Joint Group 245, which, with representatives from the Salvadoran Institute of Agrarian Transformation, MINUSAL, the PPDH, the FMLN, the Peace Commission and the ADC, will investigate landowners thought to own more land than the constitutionally allowed 245 hectares (Proceso 1 Nov. 1995; CAR 10 Nov. 1995, 3).

26 October

The Legislative Assembly passes "in emergency fashion" reforms to the penal code and the penal procedures code that would see anyone guilty of promoting the occupation of private lands sentenced to two to four years and anyone guilty of carrying out an occupation, sentenced to one to three years (ibid.).

31 October

The UN decides that MINUSAL's mandate will continue until 30 April 1996 (Los Angeles Times 31 Oct. 1995; Mesoamerica Dec. 1995, 2), even though President Calderón Sol announces that "the government has practically arrived at compliance with all of the commitments acquired in the peace accords" (Reuters 31 Oct. 1995). UN Secretary General Boutros-Ghali disagrees, pointing out in his report to the General Assembly that some 25 per cent of former combatants still await land and the completion of refugees' resettlement programmes by mid-1996 "could be in jeopardy" (UN 6 Oct. 1995, paras 16,18). The report criticizes the PNC, noting "strong indications of criminality, including alleged assassinations and the membership of illegal armed groups, within PNC itself" (UN 6 Oct. 1995, para 9). A separate MINUSAL report on the PNC suggests that the PNC's poor recruiting practices have led to the hiring of "unsuitable candidates, including criminals" and urges an immediate "purge" (CAR 3 Nov. 1995, 6-7).

9 November

Unions representing ANTEL workers begin a nationwide strike to pressure the government to halt its plan to privatize the company and, instead, consider a union modernization plan (CISPES Action Update 9 Nov. 1995). PNC officers are stationed at all ANTEL buildings, reportedly checking employee identification and preventing union members from entering the buildings (ibid.). According to a report from a non-governmental organization, the PNC is threatening to use tear gas and is pressuring workers not to support the strike (ibid.). Across El Salvador, some 20 unions are threatening strike action to protest the impending 15,000 job cuts to the state sector (CAR 17 Nov. 1995, 6).

23 November

One person is killed and at least 15 people are injured during clashes in San Salvador between anti-riot police and some 200 to 300 former soldiers and guerrillas (Reuters 23 Nov. 1995; La Nación 25 Nov. 1995; CAR 1 Dec. 1995, 1; LAWR 7 Dec. 1995, 564). René Antonio Pineda Mendoza is killed by a rubber bullet shot at "point blank range...as the unarmed man tried to escape the scene" after police "opened fire," ignoring a request from the PDDH and MINUSAL for ten extra minutes to negotiate (Reuters 23 Nov. 1995; Mesoamerica Dec. 1995, 2; CAR 1 Dec. 1995, 2; Country Reports 1995 1996, 409). Led by the Association of Former Combatants and War Victims (AEGES) the protesters "armed with clubs and machetes" were occupying the offices of the Protection Fund for War Wounded and Disabled, holding 30 employees hostage, to pressure the government into keeping its peace promises of benefits and land (Mesoamerica Dec. 1995, 2; Reuters 23 Nov. 1995; LAWR 7 Dec. 1995, 564). Some 35 protesters are arrested (Mesoamerica Dec. 1995, 2). At a media conference after the incident, PNC Director Rodrigo Avila blames the protesters for the violence and claims it was part of a "destabilization plan" (CAR 1 Dec. 1995, 2). The FMLN and others charge the police with using "excessive force" (ibid.; Mesoamerica Dec. 1995, 2). Several days later, Tomás Antonio Coronado, the PNC agent who shot Pineda, appears before a police tribunal and admits he fired but denies he intended to kill (CAR 1 Dec. 1995, 2; Country Reports 1995 1996, 409).

Rumour of an upcoming coup circulates following army and air force movements around the capital (CAR 1 Dec. 1995, 2; Jane's Intelligence Review Jan. 1996, 2; SSRC 24 Nov. 1995).

On the same day, according to San Salvador Radio Cadena, "somewhat more than 30,000 government employees from 17 government offices" take strike action to protest the impending 15,000 lay-offs (23 Nov. 1995).

1 December

Following the 23 November riot, the Ministry of Public Security and the PPDH sign a MINUSAL-brokered agreement to create an ad hoc "crisis handling group" that will work to prevent violence between police and demonstrators (El Diario de Hoy 6 Dec. 1995a; SSCDT 1 Dec. 1995; Country Reports 1995 1996, 409).

4 December

Across El Salvador, PNC agents simultaneously close 11 community radio stations, confiscating their equipment (IPS 19 Dec. 1995; The Solidarity Action Network 7 Dec. 1995; CAR 15 Dec. 1995, 6). Juan José Domenech, ANTEL president and ARENA party leader, ordered the stations closed because they are not licensed by the state telecommunications company (IPS 19 Dec. 1995; Mesoamerica Jan. 1996, 3; El Diario de Hoy 6 Dec. 1995b). Domenech reportedly charges that the stations are FMLN-controlled and used for "political indoctrination" (CAR 15 Feb. 1996, 7).[6]6 The FMLN counters that they are community stations offering educational and community services (Mesoamerica Jan. 1996, 3). On 30 January the Supreme Court rules that 7 of the 11 community radio stations closed by ANTEL may resume broadcasting (CAR 15 Feb. 1996, 6). According to the ruling, the government's confiscation of radio equipment violated Article 6 of the constitution which stipulates that "no equipment or goods used to disseminate ideas can be confiscated" (ibid.).

8 December

Inspector General Valle releases a report recommending the reorganization of the PNC anti-riot police (SSRC 8 Dec. 1995).

11 December

ATMOP, ANTEL and other government workers walk off the job to pressure the government to reform or rescind the Temporary Economic Compensation Law before the 15 December 1995 deadline for voluntary resignations (Diario Latino 11 Dec. 1995; Keesing's Dec. 1995, 40861). Anti-riot police guard the buildings, "ready to act if necessary" (Diario Latino 11 Dec. 1995). The law targets 15,000 public sector positions (CAR 19 Jan. 1996, 2).

13 December

Ramón Salazar, a candidate in the upcoming FMLN party elections, is shot dead while driving in San Salvador (The Fresno Bee 16 Dec. 1995; AP 15 Dec. 1995; Keesing's 1995, 40861). An FMLN leader claims the killing was politically motivated (The Fresno Bee 16 Dec. 1995; AP 15 Dec. 1995).

14 December

The Supreme Court decides that two articles of the Temporary Economic Compensation Law are unconstitutional: specifically, the "obligatory nature of the 'resignations' and workers' loss of compensation if they did not resign by 15 December 1995" (CAR 19 Jan. 1996, 2; LAWR 28 Dec. 1995, 600). The government later pushes the 15,000 lay-offs through the Legislative Assembly as part of the 1996 budget (Mesoamerica Feb. 1996, 4; Proceso 10 Jan. 1995 [sic]).

1996

4 January

Approximately 1,500 former government employees occupy the Metropolitan Cathedral in San Salvador to protest the 15,000 lay-offs; ten start a hunger strike (IPS 7 Jan. 1996; CAR 19 Jan. 1996, 1; Proceso 10 Jan. 1995 [sic]; Keesing's Jan. 1996, 40900). Led by ATMOP, the protesters demand that some 2,400 laid-off Public Works employees, mostly union members, be reassigned within the public service (CAR 19 Jan. 1996, 1). The remaining 140 ATMOP protestors occupying the Metropolitan Cathedral leave in mid-January after the PNC surrounds the building and Human Rights Ombudsman de Avilés promises to mediate (Keesing's Jan. 1996, 40900; CAR 19 Jan. 1996, 1-2; La Jornada 14 Jan. 1996; Mesoamerica Feb. 1996, 4). President Calderón Sol had insisted the government would not negotiate as long as the protestors remained in the Cathedral (CAR 19 Jan. 1996, 1-2).

6 January

According to Amnesty International, Adrián Esquino Lisco, a member of the Salvadoran National Indigenous Association (ANIS) is threatened with death by "at least" 10 armed men "reportedly acting with acquiescence of members of ARENA" (10 Jan. 1996). The South and Meso American Indian Rights Center, a California-based non-governmental organization, reports that three ARENA party deputies are responsible for the death threats (7 July 1996). Esquino, chief of the Nahuat, Lenca and Mayan indigenous communities, had just returned to El Salvador after having received a death threat on 17 December 1995 (AI 10 Jan. 1996).

21 January

Five men reportedly threaten ANIS member Maximiliano Bran García at his house in Las Hojas cooperative in Sonsonate department, adding they will repeat the 1983 "massacre" of indigenous peasants and kill Adrián Esquino Lisco (South and Meso American Indian Rights Center 7 July 1996; AI 29 Jan. 1996). According to the South and Meso American Indian Rights Center, the Supreme Court has ordered Las Hojas community evicted, ruling against its claim to indigenous title, and the Ministry of Agriculture has granted title to the land to another group (7 July 1996).

February

The National Judiciary Council (CNJ) recommends 11 judges be removed from the bench and 30 others be "sanctioned" for an "inexcusable ignorance of the law" (Latinamerica Press 4 Apr. 1996, 2-3).

6-7 March

Carlos Romero Alfaro who was arrested in Texas on 14 September 1995 is extradited from the US (IPS 10 Mar. 1996; Mesoamerica Apr. 1996, 3; Houston Chronicle 15 Sept. 1995; HRW Dec. 1995, 91; Mesoamerica Oct. 1995, 7). Romero's trial, the first of an alleged death squad member, begins in San Salvador the next day (IPS 10 Mar. 1996; Mesoamerica Apr. 1996, 4; LARR: Mexico and Central America 4 Apr. 1996, 2).[7]7 According to Mesoamerica, Gonzalo Flores Guardado, a second suspect and a member of the military, is arrested later in March by his own brigade (Apr. 1996, 4).

12 March

At least 10 PNC agents break into an ANIS meeting in Sonsonate department and "begin shooting" (AI 14 Mar. 1996; South and Meso American Indian Rights Center 7 July 1996). The PNC detains two ANIS members, brothers Antonio Armando Pérz Arias and Rafael Arturo Pérez Arias, reportedly beat them and then release them, uncharged, seven days later (ibid.; AI 22 Apr. 1996).

20 March

The Legislative Assembly passes the Emergency Law Against Delinquency and Organized Crime, effective for two years, to increase sentences for crimes such as murder, rape, kidnapping and extortion by a third and see minors over age 14 charged with serious crimes tried in adult court (CAR 11 Apr. 1996, 5; Latinamerica Press 4 Apr. 1996, 2; LAWR 4 Apr. 1996, 152; IPS 23 Mar. 1996). All FMLN legislative members vote against the bill (ibid.; Latinamerica Press 4 Apr. 1996, 2; Mesoamerica Apr. 1996, 3). The ARENA government also proposes for further debate the Law of Social Defence which would give the PNC sweeping powers, including the power to arrest those who "individually or collectively cause social insecurity," those "likely to be a threat to the lives or physical integrity of others" and those "who have been deported because they are carriers of infectious or fatal diseases" (CAR 11 Apr. 1996, 6; LAWR 4 Apr. 1996, 152). MINUSAL and the PPDH criticize the law as contrary to the constitution (ibid. 11 Apr. 1996, 168).

23 March

In San Pedro Masahuat, the PNC holds six of its own agents in connection with the shooting deaths of four people, including a family of three (UPI 26 Mar. 1996; CAR 2 May 1996, 7). According to eye-witness reports, the family, said to be wanted by the police, is killed when several agents fire through the walls of their home after they refuse to let in the police (ibid.). In what police sources describe as a "separate incident," a PNC agent shoots another person during a scuffle with a crowd outside the police station (ibid.).

30 March

Eight PNC agents are officially charged with the murder of five people in San Pedro Masahuat after ballistic tests "confirmed" the dead had been shot by police guns and a fifth person dies from injuries received during the incident (Excelsior 31 Mar. 1996). The eight agents will be the first to be tried under the new Emergency Law and could, if found guilty, receive sentences of up to 30 years (ibid.; CAR 2 May 1996, 7).

10 April

The PNC "forcibly" evicts about 150 families squatting on private land in San Bartolo in Ilopango department (Mesoamerica May 1996, 3; CAR 2 May 1996, 7). When the families, mostly of former combatants and people displaced by the war, will not leave, police reportedly throw tear gas at them and beat them, wounding some 20 women and children (ibid.). Police say later that they were "only doing their duty in carrying out a judge's order" (ibid.).

16 April

According to Central America Report, PNC Inspector General Valle releases his first periodic report on policing (2 May 1996, 6). The report records 635 disciplinary actions against PNC agents, of which 63 concerned human rights violations and 42 led to dismissals; the PPDH, however, recorded 1,844 complaints against the PNC in 1995 (ibid.). Valle reportedly did not include illegal acts committed by police in his report because he maintains that they are "not properly classified as human rights violations, but [are] due to a 'lack of discipline'" (ibid.).

23 April

UN Secretary General Boutros-Ghali announces that MINUSAL will withdraw at the end of the month but a small UN mission will remain behind (UN 23 Apr. 1996, para 36; Latinamerica Press 9 May 1996, 6; Mesoamerica May 1996, 3.) The mission, renamed the UN Verification Office (ONUV) and reduced to a group of five technical experts, will stay until 31 December 1996 (UN 23 Apr. 1996, para 36; Latinamerica Press 9 May 1996, 6). The ARENA government objects, stating that the peace accords are "fully implemented" (CAR 9 May 1996, 6). In his report, the Secretary General registers ongoing concern over the progress of constitutional, legislative and land reforms, noting that although about 93 per cent of all former combatants had been granted land titles as of 26 March 1996, only about 50 per cent of the titles had yet been legally registered (UN 23 Apr. 1996, para 20). The report also registers particular concern over the administration of public security, pointing to personnel who continue to "operate outside the legally established structure of the National Civil Police" (ibid., para 8) and labelling the Emergency Law "a substantial departure from the process embodied in the peace accords [that] contradicts, in some instances, basic human rights and due process standards" (ibid., para 31).

25 April

A car bomb explodes in San Salvador's wealthy Santa Elena neighbourhood, outside the home of former ARENA president Cristiani and near the US Embassy (CAR 16 May 1996, 5; IPS 16 [sic] Apr. 1996; TASS 26 Apr. 1996). Anonymous callers to a radio station say the bomb was "directed against the banking oligarchy and particularly against the former president Cristiani" (CAR 16 May 1996, 5; IPS 16 [sic] Apr. 1996).

1 May

The house of ANIS member Margrito Esquino in San Carlos, Sonsonate department, is blown up by a grenade following an April media conference in the United States during which Esquino spoke against the intimidation of his father, Adrián Esquino Lisco, and other ANIS members (AI 3 May 1996; South and Meso American Indian Rights Center 7 July 1996). No one is injured (AI 3 May 1996).

24 May

A bomb explodes outside a San Salvador business owned by former president Cristiani, heavily damaging the building (Mesoamerica June 1996, 3; Tico Times 31 May 1996). Another anonymous caller to a radio station reportedly says the bombing was the work of the Urban Commando Group for National Liberation (Mesoamerica June 1996, 3). PNC Director Avila calls the bombing a "terrorist act" (Tico Times 31 May 1996).

7 June

Women from ARENA, FMLN and other political parties meet in the capital for the First Forum for Public and Political Women of El Salvador to work toward increasing women's participation in politics (IPS 10 June 1996).

14 June

Inmates at Santa Ana prison start a hunger strike and threaten to begin a "lottery of death," randomly drawing lots to determine which inmates will be killed in protest if the government does not act by 30 June 1996 to address overcrowding and poor prison conditions (IPS 22 June 1996; Central American News 9 July 1996). The prison was built to house 350 inmates but holds over twice that many men (IPS 22 June 1996; Washington Post 28 June 1996), 74 per cent of whom are in custody awaiting trial and have not been found guilty of any crime (Central American News 27 June 1996; CAR 11 July 1996, 5; IPS 22 June 1996). The PPDH begins mediation between the prisoners and justice officials (ibid.; CAR 11 July 1996, 4).

15-17 June

The PNC arrests four law students who claim to be members of the VPR in connection with the April and May bombings in San Salvador (Central America Update 1-15 June 1996; CAR 27 June 1996, 8; IPS 27 June 1996). The four are charged with "acts of terrorism and property damage," the first terrorist act reported since the end of the war (Central American News 18 June 1996). Another man is later arrested (CAR 27 June 1996, 8).

26 June

Santa Ana inmates "temporarily" suspend until 15 July their "lottery of death" after justice officials agree to improve prison conditions and reduce pretrial waiting periods (Washington Post 28 June 1996; Central American News 27 June 1996; CAR 11 July 1996, 5). The Supreme Court takes "emergency measures," organizing some 300 lawyers to review the cases of inmates awaiting trial; the Ministry of Justice announces the construction of another prison to hold 4,000 men (ibid., 4; Central American News 27 June 1996). About 100 prisoners continue their hunger strike, at least 11 of whom reportedly sewed shut their mouths (CAR 11 July 1996, 5; Central American News 9 July 1996).

The Salvadoran daily El Diario de Hoy publishes a statement from a group calling itself the Roberto D'Aubuisson Nationalist Force (FURODA)[8]8 that names 15 public figures it plans to kill for "attempting to destabilize the republic, and make the supreme, legitimate and constitutionally elected government look bad" (IPS 27 June 1996; AI 10 July 1996; Mesoamerica Aug. 1996, 6). The list includes Human Rights Ombudsman De Avilés, Assistant Archbishop Gregorio Rosa Chavez and PLD leader Kirio Waldo Salgado (IPS 27 June 1996; AI 10 July 1996).

8 July

Santa Ana prisoners call off their hunger strike after justice officials promise to present a law within 40 days to reduce sentences of non-violent offenders by half (CAR 11 July 1996, 4; Central American News 9 July 1996) and to create a "special commission," including Human Rights Ombudsman de Avilés and Assistant Archbishop Rosa Chavez, to oversee the implementation of the agreement (CAR 18 July 1996, 8). On the same day, one of four inmates scheduled to die in the "lottery of death" is released after justice officials reviewing his case under the emergency plan clear him of murder charges (CAR 11 July 1996, 4).

19 July

The San Salvador daily Prensa Libre reports that the Legislative Assembly has passed the Law of Police Careers, requiring all police candidates to be between 18 and 22 and to have passed the second year of high school (22 July 1996). Administrators must have "reached university level" (ibid.). Until now, candidates had only to have passed grade nine (ibid.).

24-25 July

In a media release, FURODA threatens to "destroy hotels, restaurants and points of concentration" where San Pablo Forum participants gather and to "execute foreign communists" found elsewhere in El Salvador (IPS 28 July 1996; Mesoamerica Aug. 1996, 7; El Salvador Watch Sept. 1996). The San Pablo Forum, scheduled to begin in San Salvador the next day, is a gathering of over 100 representatives of left-wing parties and groups from across Latin America and the Caribbean (IPS 28 July 1996; The New York Times 29 July 1996; El Salvador Watch Sept. 1996). The FMLN alleges that ARENA is behind FURODA, an allegation the governing party denies (IPS 28 July 1996).

Mid-August

The Olof Palme organization, a non-governmental human rights group, charges the PNC with involvement in a plan to "exterminate" the street children (IPS 17 Aug. 1996). In a news report, the organization alleges that nine street children have been murdered by "hired assassins and some public security officers" over the last year and many others have been "beaten, raped or issued with death threats" (ibid.). PNC Officer José Cruz, accused of beating 17-year old Reynaldo Funes for "no apparent reason," is the only police officer said to have been charged so far (ibid.). His case was thrown out when Funes refused to press charges, reportedly "for fear of retribution" (ibid.). According to the PPDH, the PNC was "the worst violator of children's rights" in 1995 (ibid.).

UN Secretary-General Boutros-Ghali cautions that the PNC "has set off down the road to authoritarianism" and is "reluctant to be accountable to society" (El Salvador Watch Sept. 1996; CAR 3 Oct. 1996, 5). PNC Inspector General Valle resigns and, nine days later, returns to his post at the urging of Human Rights Ombudsman de Avilés (El Salvador Watch Sept. 1996).

18 August

Some 600 ARENA party members meet in Cabanas to push for the resignation of party leader Domenech, alleged to be involved in drug smuggling, money-laundering and corruption (El Salvador Watch Oct. 1996; LAWR 26 Sept. 1996b, 435; Mesoamerica Sept. 1996, 10). Victor Antonio Cornejo Arango, a party founder, says if Domenech does not resign the group will be "forced to carry out other, more serious activities" (ibid.).

21 August

A "key witness" in the Francisco Velis murder trial known only as "Julio" escapes kidnap in Santa Tecla, outside San Salvador (Mesoamerica Sept. 1996, 10). A FMLN executive criticizes the government for not providing protection for witnesses or attorneys (ibid.). (see 17 May 1995)

24 August

UPI reports that Interior Minister Mario Acosta has announced an inquiry into allegations that high-ranking government officials have been involved in an international illegal immigrant smuggling network (24 Aug. 1996).

5 September

An underground group called the Salvadoran National Liberation Commando (Comando Estratégico de Liberación Nacional) threatens to "depose" President Calderón Sol (LAWR 19 Sept. 1996, 432; IPS 5 Sept. 1996) and rid the country of the "'destructive forces of the nation'" (ibid.). The group "claims to represent 90 percent of the army" (ibid.; Mesoamerica Oct. 1996, 8). It also accuses Interior Minister Mario Acosta of being "one of the heads of the networks for illegal immigrants that have been established in Asia" (IPS 5 Sept. 1996).

7-8 September

Juan José Domenech resigns as ARENA president to face "corruption and drug-trafficking charges" (Mesoamerica Oct. 1996, 8; CAR 19 Sept. 1996, 6; LAWR 26 Sept. 1996b, 435). Gloria Salguero Gross, the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly, is appointed acting president of ARENA (ibid.; Mesoamerica Oct. 1996, 8; CAR 19 Sept. 1996, 7).

10 September

The Patriotic Movement Against Delinquancy (MPCD), a group consisting of members of the business community, announces that a programme allowing people to obtain consumer goods in exchange for turning in their guns will begin on 21 September (Reuters 10 Sept. 1996; IPS 20 Sept. 1996; Mesoamerica Oct. 1996, 7). Some two weeks later, the operation is pronounced a "'success'" by its organizers (ibid.; Reuters 23 Sept. 1996). However, the project is cancelled in mid-November when it runs into financial difficulties (Mesoamerica Dec. 1996, 3).

19 September

ARENA tables a bill in the Legislative Assembly that would bring back capital punishment for kidnapping, murder and rape (AI 3 Oct. 1996; Mesoamerica Oct. 1996, 8; ibid. Nov. 1996, 5; IPS 4 Oct. 1996). The bill, which requires a constitutional amendment, is denounced by several religious and women's groups (ibid.; Mesoamerica Nov. 1996, 6). The bill is passed on 10 October, but it will take effect only if it is ratified by the Legislative Assembly after the next Legislative Assembly elections, which are scheduled to be held in 1997 (AI 11 Oct. 1996; LAWR 24 Oct. 1996, 492; Mesoamerica Nov. 1996, 5; Latinamerica Press 17 Oct. 1996, 6).

8 October

According to an Amnesty International report, a human rights activist, Eliezar Ambelis, manages to foil an attempt by two unidentified masked men to kidnap him (21 Oct. 1996). The same source adds that the Madeleine Lagadec Human Rights Centre, where Ambelis works, has received several threats and was broken into and burglarized on 12 October (ibid.).

17 October

Five hundred members of AEGES, a veterans' association, demonstrate in front of the parliament building and demand the social benefits promised in the peace accords; in the ensuing confrontation with police, more than 30 people are arrested (Latin American Newsletters 7 Nov. 1996; Centroamerica Nov. 1996, 2; AP 21 Oct. 1996).

21 October

The corpses of three women and four children are discovered in a house east of San Salvador (Centroamerica Nov. 1996, 2; Reuters 22 Oct. 1996). About two weeks later, on 4 November, eight other people, including five children and two women, are killed by unidentified armed men in Nahulingo, located about 60 kilometres from San Salvador (ibid. 4 Nov. 1996). According to Reuters, this was the "seventh massacre of a rural family" in El Salvador this year (ibid.).

31 October

An article in Latin American Weekly Report states that six Salvadoran policemen have been arrested recently in connection with two separate criminal cases (31 Oct. 1996, 504). The article adds that "a study conducted by the inspector-general of the police revealed the 25% of the police officers had no idea of what human rights were" (ibid.).

19 November

Human rights ombudswoman Victoria Marina Alvarez de Avilés says that she has been the target of "numerous death threats" (Reuters 19 Nov. 1996). She "urge[s] the United Nations to stay in the country" in order to help keep the peace process going (ibid.).

24 November

According to a Reuters report, a grenade explosion kills 5 people and injures 55 others during a confrontation between rival gangs near the village of San Pedro Perulapan, located about 20 kilometres from San Salvador (Reuters 25 Nov. 1996).

25 November

About 700 child workers take part in a demonstration organized by the Olof Palme Child Protection Foundation in front of the National Assembly building (UPI 25 Nov. 1996). The children demand "laws to protect minors from violence and mistreatment" (ibid.). There are an estimated 300,000 child workers under the age of 15 in El Salvador (ibid.).

December

The UN Verification Office (UNUV) is dissolved and replaced with a support group of four officers in the field. The group will function from January to June 1997. In addition, a rapporteur mission from UN headquarters will regularly visit El Salvdor during this period (UN 30 Jan. 1997).

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Associated Press (AP). 9 May 1995. AM Cycle. "Four Gang Members Killed by 'Black Shadow' Squad." (NEXIS)

Austin American-Statesman. 23 July 1995. "El Salvador Police Trail 'Death Squad.'" (NEXIS)

Barry, Tom. 1991. 2nd ed. El Salvador: A Country Guide. Albuquerqe, New Mexico: The Inter-Hemispheric Education Resource Centre.

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 3 October 1996. Vol. 23, No. 38. "El Salvador: The Dangers of Peace."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 19 September 1996. Vol. 23, No. 36. "El Salvador: Resignation Shakes ARENA."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 18 July 1996. Vol. 23, No. 27. "El Salvador."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 11 July 1996. Vol. 23, No. 26. "Prison Crisis."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 27 June 1996. Vol. 23, No. 24. "El Salvador."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 16 May 1996. Vol. 23, No. 18. "Mutual Incrimination After Car Bomb Explosion."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 9 May 1996. Vol. 23, No. 17. "MINUSAL's Mandate Ends; Observation to Continue."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 2 May 1996. Vol. 23, No. 16. "Debate on Police Involvement in Violations."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 11 April 1996. Vol. 23, No. 13. "New Anti-Crime Measures."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 15 February 1996. Vol. 23, No. 6. "Community Radios Back on Air."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 19 January 1996. Vol. 23. No. 2. "Protesters Vacate Cathedral."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 15 December 1995. Vol. 22, No. 48. "Crisis of Confidence."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 1 December 1995. Vol. 22, No. 46. "Violent Eviction Provokes Rumors of Coup."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 17 November 1995. Vol. 22, No. 44. "State Sector Strike."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 10 November 1995. Vol. 22, No. 43. "Land Protests Highlight Unfinished Reforms."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 3 November 1995. Vol. 22, No. 42. "National Civil Police Taken to Task."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 13 October 1995. Vol. 22, No. 39. "Electoral Reforms Blocked."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 29 September 1995. Vol. 22, No. 37. "Tremors Inside the PNC."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 15 September 1995. Vol. 22, No. 35. "Finally, the New Police Inspector General."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 25 August 1995. Vol. 22, No. 32. "El Salvador."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 18 August 1995. Vol. 22, No. 31. "Ex-Combatants Mobilizing Again."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 11 August 1995. Vol. 22, No. 29/30. "Death Squad Suspects Captured."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 9 June 1995. Vol. 22, No. 21. "El Salvador."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 19 May 1995a. Vol. 22, No. 18. "The Shadow of Death Squads Returns."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 19 May 1995b. Vol. 22, No. 18. "El Salvador."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 24 March 1995. Vol. 22, No. 11. "El Salvador."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 17 March 1995a. Vol. 22, No. 10. "The Maquila Industry."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 17 March 1995b. Vol. 22, No. 10. "El Salvador: Strike Epidemic."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 17 March 1995c. Vol. 22, No. 10. "El Salvador."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 24 February 1995. Vol. 22, No. 7. "Police Unable to Control Crime."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 2 December 1994. Vol. 21, No. 46. "ONUSAL: PNC Found Lacking."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 25 November 1994. Vol. 21, No. 45. "UN Report: Death Squads and ONUSAL Extension."

Central America Report (CAR) [Guatemala City]. 18 November 1994. Vol. 21, No. 44. "ONUSAL vs. Supreme Court: Territorial Squabbles."

Central America Update [Toronto]. 1-15 June 1996. "El Salvador: Two Students Arrested For Bombing." [Internet] ([email protected]) [Accessed 20 June 1996]

Central American News [n.p]. 9 July 1996. "Prisoners End Hunger Strike." [Internet] (URL: http://www.magi.com/crica/news/sal14.htm) [Accessed 16 Sept. 1996]

Central American News [n.p]. 27 June 1996. "Six Hunger Strikers Hospitalized in Salvadoran Prison." [Internet] (URL: http://www.magi.com/crica/news/sal12.htm) [Accessed 16 Sept. 1996]

Central American News [n.p]. 18 June 1996. "Police Nab Bombing Suspects." [Internet] (URL: http://www.magi.com/crica/news/sal10.htm) [Accessed 16 Sept. 1996]

Centroamérica: The Month in Review [Minneapolis]. November 1996. Vol. 11, No. 11. "El Salvador: Economic Growth Hurts."

The Christian Science Monitor [Boston]. 14 September 1995. "Police Fire on Striking Hospital Workers." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 4-17 Sept. 1995, Vol. 10, No. 16, p. 3)

The Christian Science Monitor [Boston]. 3 February 1995. Gene Palumbo. "Strike by Police Unit in El Salvador Shakes Foundation of Peace." (NEXIS)

CISPES Action Alert [New York]. 3 July 1995. "HIV/AIDS Advocate and Gay Community Targeted for Repression in San Salvador." [Internet] ([email protected]) [Accessed 5 July 1995]

CISPES Action Alert [New York]. 21 March 1995. "Salvadoran Labor Leader Captured at Maquila." [Internet] ([email protected]) [Accessed 22 Mar. 1995]

CISPES Action Update [New York]. 9 November 1995. "Phone Workers Strike Confronts Massive Police Presence—Continue Pressure In Support of Strike and to Demilitarize Work Sites." [Internet] ([email protected]) [Accessed 9 Nov. 1995]

Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1995. 1996. United States Department of State. Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office.

El Diario de Hoy [San Salvador, in Spanish]. 6 December 1995a. "National Police to Create Crisis Handling Group." (FBIS-LAT-95-235 7 Dec. 1995, pp. 15-16)

El Diario de Hoy [San Salvador, in Spanish]. 6 December 1995b. "Police Seize Radio Equipment, Close Stations." (FBIS-LAT-95-237 11 Dec. 1995, p. 28)

Diario Latino [San Salvador, in Spanish]. 11 December 1995. "State Workers Suspend Activities at Institutions." (FBIS-LAT-95-240 14 Dec. 1995, p. 17)

Diario Latino [San Salvador, in Spanish]. 26 October 1995. "Guerrilla Group Declares War on 'Capitalists'." (FBIS-LAT-95-210 31 Oct. 1995, p. 15)

El Salvador Watch [New York]. October 1996. No. 53. "Rift in the Right, ARENA Party Head Resigns." [Internet] ([email protected]) [Accessed 26 Sept. 1996]

El Salvador Watch [New York]. September 1996. No. 52. "FMLN Hosts Latin American Left at Foro de Sao Paulo." [Internet] ([email protected]) [Accessed 3 Sept. 1996]

The Europa World Year Book 1995. 1995. 36th ed. Vol. 1. London: Europa Publications.

Excelsior [Mexico City]. 31 March 1996. "Eight Salvadoran Agents Implicated in the Killing of 5 People Captured." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 1-14 Apr. 1996, Vol. 11, No. 5, p. 3).

Federal News Service [Washington, DC]. 28 November 1994. "United Nations Package." (NEXIS)

The Fresno Bee. 16 December 1995. Home Edition. "San Salvador." (NEXIS)

The Fresno Bee. 21 May 1995. Home Edition. Marcos Aleman. "Death Squads Return to El Salvador; Government Involvement Means the Killings Could Turn Political." (NEXIS)

Fundación Flor de Izote [San Salvador, in English]. March-April 1995. Vol. 1, No. 1. "El Salvador in Perspective." [Internet] ([email protected]) [Accessed 5 May 1995]

The Houston Chronicle. 15 September 1995. Stephen Johnson. "FBI Nabs Salvadoran Slaying Suspect in Houston." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 4-17 Sept. 1995, Vol. 10, No. 16, p. 3)

The Houston Chronicle. 29 April 1995. "U.N. Ends Operation." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 17-30 Apr. 1995, Vol. 10, No. 6, p. 3)

Human Rights Watch (HRW). December 1995. Human Rights Watch World Report 1996. New York: Human Rights Watch.

Inter Press Service (IPS). 4 October 1996. "Church Groups Lead Outcry Over Death Penalty." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 30 Sept.-13 Oct. 1996, Vol. 11, No. 18, p. 4)

Inter Press Service (IPS). 20 September 1996. Juan José Dalton. "Massive Arms Collection Campaign Begins." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 16-29 Sept. 1996, Vol. 11, No. 17, p. 3)

Inter Press Service (IPS). 5 September 1996. "Military Group Sets Time Frame for Coup d'État." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 2-15 Sept. 1996, Vol. 11, No. 16, p. 5)

Inter Press Service (IPS). 17 August 1996. Juan José Dalton. "Deliberate Plan to Exterminate Street Children Exposed." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 5-18 Aug. 1996, Vol.11, No. 14, p. 5)

Inter Press Service (IPS). 28 July 1996. Juan José Dalton. "Death Squad Threatens San Pablo Forum." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 22 July-4 Aug. 1996, Vol. 11, No. 13, p. 3)

Inter Press Service (IPS). 27 June 1996. Juan José Dalton. "El Salvador: Specter of Terrorism Reawakens." (NEXIS)

Inter Press Service (IPS). 22 June 1996. "Hanging By Numbers to Follow Hunger Strike." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 10-23 June 1996, Vol. 11, No. 10, pp. 5-6)

Inter Press Service (IPS). 10 June 1996. "Women Are Organizing For More Political Influence." (Central America NewsPak, [Austin] 10-23 June 1996, Vol. 11, No. 10, p. 5)

Inter Press Service (IPS). 16 April 1996. "Car Bomb Explodes in Wealthy Neighbourhood: Flashback to Civil War." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 29 Apr.-12 May 1996, Vol. 11, No. 7, p. 3)

Inter Press Service (IPS). 23 March 1996. "Emergency Law to Combat Delinquency Approved." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 18-31 Mar. 1996, Vol. 11, No. 4, pp. 3-4)

Inter Press Service (IPS). 10 March 1996. "FMLN Pleased With Trial For Death Squad Members." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 4-17 Mar. 1996, Vol. 11, No. 3, p. 3)

Inter Press Service (IPS). 7 January 1996. "Public Workers Take Cathedral." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 25 Dec. 1995-7 Jan. 1996, Vol. 10, No. 24, p. 4)

Inter Press Service (IPS). 19 December 1995. Juan José Dalton. "Strong Critiques of the Government Force Radio Closings." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 11-24 Dec. 1995, Vol. 10, No. 23, p. 6)

Inter Press Service (IPS). 31 July 1995. Juan José Dalton. "El Salvador—Human Rights: 'Black Shadow' in Court." (NEXIS)

Inter Press Service (IPS). 22 June 1995. Barbara Borst. "El Salvador—Finance: Donors Back Peace With New Aid Pledge." (NEXIS)

Inter Press Service (IPS). 3 June 1995. Beatriz de Paul. "Women Denounce Human Rights Violations." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 29 May-11 June 1995, Vol. 10, No. 9, pp. 3-4)

Inter Press Service (IPS). 24 April 1995. Juan José Dalton. "El Salvador: Vigilante Groups Help Step-up the Violence." (NEXIS)

Inter Press Service (IPS). 10 February 1995. Ivan Castro. "Police Strike Opens Border to Trafficking." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 6-19 Feb. 1995, Vol. 10, No. 1, p. 3)

Inter Press Service (IPS). 9 February 1995. "ARENA Denounces Resurgence of Death Squads." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 6-19 Feb. 1995, Vol. 10, No. 1, p. 2)

Inter Press Service (IPS). 2 December 1994. "Ministers Accused of Corruption Resign." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 28 Nov. 1994-11 Dec. 1995, Vol. 9, No. 22, p. 2)

Inter Press Service (IPS). 14 November 1994. "Assassination Overshadows Human Rights Gains." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 14-27 Nov. 1994, Vol. 9, No. 21, p. 2-3)

International Solidarity Committee. 9 October 1995. "Another Maquila Worker Dies Because She was Denied Permission to Go to the Hospital." [Internet] ([email protected]) [Accessed 9 Oct. 1995]

Jane's Intelligence Review. January 1996. Vol. 8, No. 1. "Coup in El Salvador."

Jane's Intelligence Review. 1 August 1995. Vol. 7, No. 8. "Salvadorean Forces Make More Changes." (NEXIS)

Jane's Intelligence Review. 1 July 1994. Vol. 6, No. 7. Julio Montes. "El Salvador—Combat Arms Update." (NEXIS)

La Journada [Mexico City]. "State Workers Decide to Leave Cathedral, But No Agreements Reached." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 8-21 Jan. 1996, Vol. 10, No. 25, p. 3-4)

Keesing's Record of World Events [Cambridge]. January 1996. Vol. 42, No. 1. "El Salvador."

Keesing's Record of World Events [Cambridge]. December 1995. Vol. 41, No. 12. "Shooting of FMLN Leader—Union Protests Against Job Cuts."

Keesing's Record of World Events [Cambridge]. March 1995. Vol. 41, No. 3. "Political Realignment."

Keesing's Record of World Events [Cambridge]. February 1995. Vol. 41, No. 2. "Protest Against Economic Plan."

Keesing's Record of World Events [Cambridge]. January 1995. Vol. 41, No. 1. "Protest Siege by Army Veterans."

Keesing's Record of World Events [Cambridge]. November 1994. Vol. 40, No. 11. "Extension of ONUSAL Mandate."

Latin America Press [Lima]. 17 October 1996. Vol. 28, No. 38. "El Salvador: Death Penalty Approved."

Latin America Press [Lima]. 9 May 1996. Vol. 28, No. 17. "UN Mission Stays Put."

Latin America Press [Lima]. 4 April 1996. Vol. 28, No. 12. "Cracking Down on Crime."

Latin America Press [Lima]. 26 October 1995. Vol. 27, No. 39. "New Police Force Corrupt As Well."

Latin America Press [Lima]. 20 July 1995. Vol. 27, No. 27. "El Salvador: Gays Under Gun."

Latin America Press [Lima]. 8 June 1995. Vol. 27, No. 21. "Return of the Death Squads."

Latin America Regional Reports (LARR): Mexico and Central America [London]. 4 April 1996. "Death Squad Prosecution." (NEXIS)

Latin America Regional Reports (LARR): Caribbean [London]. 22 June 1995. "Death Squads Reappear." (NEXIS)

Latin America Regional Reports (LARR): Caribbean [London]. 18 May 1995. "UN Leaves With Praise and Warning; Police Still Suffer From 'Multiple Deficiencies.'" (NEXIS)

Latin American Newsletters [London]. 7 November 1996. "El Salvador: Veterans Protest." (NEXIS)

Latin American Weekly Report (LAWR) [London]. 31 October 1996. "El Salvador: Police."

Latin American Weekly Report (LAWR) [London]. 24 October 1996. "El Salvador: Death Penalty."

Latin American Weekly Report (LAWR) [London]. 26 September 1996. "Scandals Force ARENA Leader to Quit; With Elections Impending, ARENA Blames 'Conspiracy.'"

Latin American Weekly Report (LAWR) [London]. 19 September 1996. "El Salvador: Coup Threat."

Latin American Weekly Report (LAWR) [London]. 11 April 1996. "El Salvador: Anti-Crime Law."

Latin American Weekly Report (LAWR) [London]. 4 April 1996. "Tough Emergency Law in El Salvador."

Latin American Weekly Report (LAWR) [London]. 28 December 1995. "El Salvador: Labour Conflict."

Latin American Weekly Report (LAWR) [London]. 7 December 1995. "El Salvador: Protest and Clash."

Latin American Weekly Report (LAWR) [London]. 9 November 1995. "El Salvador: New Guerrilla Group."

Latin American Weekly Report (LAWR) [London]. 5 October 1995. "El Salvador: Strike."

Latin American Weekly Report (LAWR) [London]. 24 August 1995. "Crime and Vigilantes in El Salvador."

Latin American Weekly Report (LAWR) [London]. 15 June 1995. "El Salvador: Reshuffle."

La Lettre de la Federation Internationale des Ligues des Droits de l'Homme (FIDH) [Paris]. 15-22 June 1995. No. 591-592. "Salvador: L'impunité dénoncée par la CDHES, affiliées à la FIDH."

Libération [Paris]. 14 September 1995. "Salvador: la police à l'assaut des grévistes." (NEXIS)

Los Angeles Times. 31 October 1995. Juanita Darling. "El Salvador Reforms Incomplete, U.N. Says." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 30 Oct.-12 Nov. 1995, Vol. 10, No. 20, p. 3)

Mesoamerica [San José, Costa Rica]. December 1996. Vol. 15, No. 12. Courtney Villegas. "El Salvador."

Mesoamerica [San José, Costa Rica]. November 1996. Vol. 15, No. 11. Jeremy D. Macrigeanis. "El Salvador."

Mesoamerica [San José, Costa Rica]. October 1996. Vol. 15, No. 10. "El Salvador."

Mesoamerica [San José, Costa Rica]. September 1996. Vol. 15, No. 9. Lisa Akerman. "El Salvador."

Mesoamerica [San José, Costa Rica]. August 1996. Vol. 15, No. 8. Juan M. Sosa-Lesage. "El Salvador."

Mesoamerica [San José, Costa Rica]. June 1996. Vol. 15, No. 6. Brandy Davis. "El Salvador."

Mesoamerica [San José, Costa Rica]. May 1996. Vol. 15, No. 5. Meg Lewis. "El Salvador."

Mesoamerica [San José, Costa Rica]. April 1996. Vol. 15, No. 4. Art Gillman. "El Salvador."

Mesoamerica [San José, Costa Rica]. February 1996. Vol. 15, No. 2. Tim Griffiths. "El Salvador."

Mesoamerica [San José, Costa Rica]. January 1996. Vol. 15, No. 1. Scott Miller. "El Salvador."

Mesoamerica [San José, Costa Rica]. December 1995. Vol. 14, No. 12. Clifton L. Holland. "El Salvador."

Mesoamerica [San José, Costa Rica]. November 1995. Vol. 14, No. 11. Sarah Miller. "El Salvador."

Mesoamerica [San José, Costa Rica]. October 1995. Vol. 14, No.10. Jennifer Coughlin. "El Salvador."

Mesoamerica [San José, Costa Rica]. September 1995. Vol. 14, No. 9. Lea Aschkenas. "El Salvador."

Mesoamerica [San José, Costa Rica]. August 1995. Vol. 14, No. 8. Catherine Travis. "El Salvador."

Mesoamerica [San José, Costa Rica]. June 1995. Vol. 14, No. 6. Jeremy Latimer. "El Salvador."

Mesoamerica [San José, Costa Rica]. May 1995. Vol. 14, No. 5. T. Mark Carey. "El Salvador."

Mesoamerica [San José, Costa Rica]. April 1995. Vol. 14, No. 4. John Damer. "El Salvador."

Mesoamerica [San José, Costa Rica]. March 1995. Vol. 14, No. 3. Erin Powers Brennan and Timothy M. Pyne. "El Salvador."

Mesoamerica [San José, Costa Rica]. February 1995. Vol. 14, No. 2. Eugenie McNamee and Matt Smith. "El Salvador."

Mesoamerica [San José, Costa Rica]. December 1994. Vol. 13, No. 12. Deana Pfanner. "El Salvador."

The Miami Herald. 9 October 1995. Thomas Long. "Salvador's New Police Lawlessness." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 16-29 Oct. 1995, Vol. 10, No. 19, p. 2)

La Nación [San José, Costa Rica]. 25 November 1995. "Tension Shakes El Salvador." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 13-26 Nov. 1995, Vol. 10, No. 21, p. 4)

The New York Times. 29 July 1996. Larry Rohter. "A Chastened Latin Left Puts its Hope in Ballots." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 22 July-4 Aug. 1996, Vol. 11, No. 13, p. 1)

Notimex [Mexico City, in Spanish]. 12 September 1995. "Striking Workers Accuse Police of Violence." (FBIS-LAT-95-178 14 Sept. 1995, p. 23)

NotiSur [Albuquerque, N.Mex.]. 4 August 1995. "El Salvador: Police Arrest 16 Suspected Members of 'Sombra Negra' Death Squad." (NEXIS)

Political Handbook of the World: 1994-1995. 1995. Edited by Arthur S. Banks. Binghamton, NY: CSA Publications.

La Prensa Gráfica [San Salvador, in Spanish]. 25 September 1995. "Calderón Sol on 'Black Shadow' Gang, Electoral Reforms." (FBIS-LAT-95-188 28 Sept. 1995, p. 14)

La Prensa Gráfica [San Salvador, in Spanish]. 29 July 1995. "Officials Warn of Instability in Country, Blame FMLN." (FBIS-LAT-95-147 1 Aug. 1995, p. 9)

La Prensa Gráfica [San Salvador, in Spanish]. 27 July 1995. "President Chides Governor For Supporting 'Black Shadow'." (FBIS-LAT-95-146 31 July 1995, p. 14)

La Prensa Gráfica [San Salvador, in Spanish]. 25 July 1995. "Prosecutor General Acquits Former President Cristiani." (FBIS-LAT-95-145 28 July 1995, p. 26)

La Prensa Gráfica [San Salvador, in Spanish]. 24 May 1995. "Clandestine Group Issues Death Threat Against Deputies." (FBIS-LAT-95-102 26 May 1995, p. 21)

La Prensa Gráfica [San Salvador, in Spanish]. 8 April 1995. "Calderón Sol, War Disabled Envoys Sign Accord." (FBIS-LAT-95-070 12 Apr. 1995, p. 18)

Prensa Libre [Guatemala City]. 22 July 1996. "Salvadoran Congress Approves New Police Requirements." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 22 July-4 Aug. 1996, Vol. 11, No. 13, p. 4)

Proceso [San Salvador, in English]. 10 January 1995 [sic]. No. 692. "Labor: Socio-labor Conflict and Democracy." [Internet] ([email protected]) [Accessed 16 Jan. 1996]

Proceso [San Salvador, in English]. 1 November 1995. No. 684. "Land: Conflict in the Countryside." [Internet] ([email protected]) [Accessed 8 Nov. 1995]

Proceso [San Salvador, in English]. 6 September 1995. No. 676. "News Briefs." [Internet] ([email protected]) [Accessed 13 Sept. 1995]

Proceso [San Salvador, in English]. 30 August 1995. No. 675. "News Briefs." [Internet] ([email protected]) [Accessed 8 Sept. 1995]

Proceso [San Salvador, in English]. 22 March 1995. No. 654. "Society: Crime and the Consolidation of Democracy." [Internet] ([email protected]) [Accessed 27 Mar. 1995]

Proceso [San Salvador, in English]. 15 March 1995. No. 653. "Editorial: El Salvador and Poverty." [Internet] ([email protected]) [Accessed 20 Mar. 1995]

La Republica [San José, Costa Rica]. 8 February 1995. "Violence on the Rise in El Salvador." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 6-19 Feb. 1995, Vol. 10, No. 1, p. 2)

El Rescate [Los Angeles]. 31 May 1995. "Entries From El Salvador Chronology and Report from El Salvador."

Reuters. 25 November 1996. BC Cycle. "5 Killed 55 Injured in El Salvador Grenade Blast." (NEXIS)

Reuters. 19 November 1996. BC Cycle. "Salvador Rights Chief Complains of Death Threats." (NEXIS)

Reuters. 4 November 1996. BC Cycle. "Eight Killed in El Salvador Massacre." (NEXIS)

Reuters. 22 October 1996. BC Cycle. "Seven Found Dead in El Salvador Home." (NEXIS)

Reuters. 23 September 1996. BC Cycle. "El Salvador Guns-for-Goods Program Called Success." (NEXIS)

Reuters. 10 September 1996. BC Cycle. "El Salvador Group to Launch Gun Exchange Program." (NEXIS)

Reuters. 23 November 1995. BC Cycle. Alberto Barrera. "El Salvador Police Kill One, Injure 15 Protesters." (NEXIS)

Reuters. 31 October 1995. BC Cycle. "Salvador Says Peace Complete, Ex-Rebels Disagree." (NEXIS)

Reuters. 12 September 1995. BC Cycle. "Salvadoran Police Teargas Strikers During Scuffle." (NEXIS)

Reuters. 17 February 1995. BC Cycle. "Salvador's Ex-President Accused of Corruption." (NEXIS)

The Russian Information Agency ITAR-TASS (TASS). 26 April 1996. "Powerful Bomb Goes Off in Salvadorean Capital." (NEXIS)

San Francisco Chronicle. 14 January 1995. "Civilian Police Installed in Salvador." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 9-22 Jan. 1995, Vol. 9, No. 25, p. 3)

San Salvador Canal Doce Television (SSCDT) [San Salvador, in Spanish]. 1 December 1995. "Body Formed to Avoid Crisis Between Police, Protesters." (FBIS-LAT-95-232 4 Dec. 1995, p. 27)

San Salvador Canal Doce Television (SSCDT) [San Salvador, in Spanish]. 24 August [sic] 1995. "Clandestine Organization Emerges as 'Political' Option." (FBIS-LAT-95-206 25 Oct. 1995, p. 15)

San Salvador Canal Doce Television (SSCDT) [San Salvador, in Spanish]. 15 February 1995. "Further on Demobilized Soldiers Demonstration." (FBIS-LAT-95-031 15 Feb. 1995, p. 43).

San Salvador Canal Doce Television (SSCDT) [San Salvador, in Spanish]. 24 January 1995a. "One Reported Dead; Protest Spreads." (FBIS-LAT-95-016 25 Jan. 1995, p. 23)

San Salvador Canal Doce Television (SSCDT) [San Salvador, in Spanish]. 24 January 1995b. "Human Rights Commission Reports Little Progress." (FBIS-LAT-95-018 27 Jan. 1995, p. 19)

San Salvador Canal Doce Television (SSCDT) [San Salvador, in Spanish]. 24 January 1995c. "PNC Dispute Hinders Fight Against Drug Trafficking." (FBIS-LAT-95-020 31 Jan. 1995, pp. 18-19)

San Salvador Canal Doce Television (SSCDT) [San Salvador, in Spanish]. 29 November 1994. "Two Ministers Resign to Face Legal Charges." (FBIS-LAT-94-229 29 Nov. 1994, p. 25)

San Salvador Canal Doce Television (SSCDT) [San Salvador, in Spanish]. 15 November 1994. "San Miguel Transportation Strike Leaves 2 Dead." (FBIS-LAT-94-220 15 Nov. 1994, p. 22)

San Salvador Radio Cadena (SSRC) [San Salvador, in Spanish]. 8 December 1995. "President Applauds Police Inspector General Report." (FBIS-LAT-95-239 13 Dec. 1995, p. 23)

San Salvador Radio Cadena (SSRC) [San Salvador, in Spanish]. 24 November 1995. "Government Spokesperson Denies Rumors." (FBIS-LAT-95-227 27 Nov. 1995, p. 22)

San Salvador Radio Cadena (SSRC) [San Salvador, in Spanish]. 23 November 1995. "President Addresses Striking Government Employees." (FBIS-LAT-95-226 24 Nov. 1995, p. 16)

San Salvador Radio Cadena (SSRC) [San Salvador, in Spanish]. 14 February 1995. "Riots Interrupt Calderon, Gonzalez News Conference." (FBIS-LAT-95-031 15 Feb. 1995, p. 43)

San Salvador Radio Cadena (SSRC) [San Salvador, in Spanish]. 26 January 1995a. "Party Members Condemn Actions of Demobilized." (FBIS-LAT-95-017 26 Jan. 1995, p. 30)

San Salvador Radio Cadena (SSRC) [San Salvador, in Spanish]. 26 January 1995b. "Deputies Held By Adefaes Said to Leave Assembly Building." (FBIS-LAT-95-017 26 Jan. 1995, p. 31)

San Salvador Radio Cadena (SSRC) [San Salvador, in Spanish]. 25 January 1995. "FMLN Coordinator Defends Peace Process, Calls For Agreement." (FBIS-LAT-95-017 26 Jan. 1995, p. 29)

San Salvador Radio Cadena (SSRC) [San Salvador, in Spanish]. 17 November 1994. "President Defends Decision to Deploy Army in Strike." (FBIS-LAT-94-223 18 Nov. 1994, p. 11)

Share Foundation. 28 April 1995. "Update on Land Transfer Program." [Internet] ([email protected]) [Accessed 8 June 1995]

Solidarity Action Committee. World Association of Community Radio Stations. December 1995. "El Salvador: Ten Community Radio Stations Closed." [Internet] ([email protected]) [Accessed 7 Dec.1995]

South and Meso American Indian Rights Center [Oakland]. 7 July 1996. "Asociación Nacional de Indigenous Salvadorenas (ANIS) Chief's House Bombed." [Internet] (URL: http//www.comlink.apc.org/fic/newsletter/eng/nl27elslhr.htm) [Accessed 15 Sept. 1996]

The Tico Times [San José, Costa Rica]. 31 May 1996. "Second Bomb Hits Salvador." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 27 May-9 June 1996, Vol. 11, No. 9, pp. 4-5)

United Nations (UN). Department of Peacekeeping Operations, New York. 30 January 1997. Telephone interview with Gabriel Munuera, liason officer responsible for the El Salvador mission.

United Nations (UN). General Assembly. 23 April 1996. (A/50/935). The Situation in Central America: Procedures for the Establishment of a Firm and Lasting Peace and Progress in Fashioning a Region of Peace, Freedom, Democracy and Development. Mission of United Nations in El Salvador. Report of the Secretary General. New York: United Nations.

United Nations (UN). April 1996. (ST/LEG/SER.E/14). Multilateral Treaties Deposited With the Secretary General. Status As At 31 December 1995. New York: United Nations.

United Nations (UN). Economic and Social Council. 25 January 1996. (E/CN.4/1996/4). Question of the Violation of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in Any Part of the World, With Particular Reference to Colonial and Other Dependent Countries and Territories. Extrajudicial, Summary of Arbitrary Executions. Report by the Special Rapporteur, Mr. Bacre Aldy Ndiaye, Submitted Pursuant to Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1995/73. New York: United Nations.

United Nations (UN). General Assembly. 6 October 1995. (A/50/517). The Situation in Central America: Procedures For the Establishment of a Firm and Lasting Peace and Progress in Fashioning a Region of Peace, Freedom, Democracy and Development. Report of the Secretary General. New York: United Nations.

United Nations (UN). Security Council. 23 November 1994. PM Summary. (SC/5947). Press Release. "Security Council Extends Mandate of ONUSAL for One Final Period to 30 April 1995." New York: United Nations.

United Press International (UPI). 25 November 1996. BC Cycle. "Salvador Street Children Protest." (NEXIS)

United Press International (UPI). 24 August 1996. "Government Officials to be Investigated for Trafficking Illegal Immigrants." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 19 Aug.-1 Sept. 1996, Vol. 11, No. 15, p. 3)

United Press International (UPI). 26 March 1996. BC Cycle. "Salvadoran Police Arrested in Killings." (NEXIS)

United Press International (UPI). 22 July 1995. BC Cycle. "Salvadoran Vigilantes Threaten Police." (NEXIS)

United Press International (UPI). 17 May 1995. BC Cycle. "Salvdoran Agent Identified in Killing." (NEXIS)

United Press International (UPI). 14 March 1995. BC Cycle. "Salvadoran Army Patrols Streets." (NEXIS)

The Washington Post. 28 June 1996. "Salvadorans Halt 'Death Lottery'." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 10-23 June 1996, Vol. 11, No.10, p. 3)

The Washington Post. 30 July 1995. Douglas Farah. "High-Level Arrest Marks Salvadoran Death Squad Probe." (Central America NewsPak [Austin], 24 July-7 Aug. 1995. Vol. 10, No. 13, pp. 2-3)

Weekly News Update on the Americas [n.p.]. 29 October 1995. No. 300. "Salvadoran Campesinos Seize Lands." [Internet] ([email protected]) [Accessed 30 Oct. 1995]

The Xinhua News Agency. 28 July 1995. "Demobilized Salvadorans Occupy Hospital." (NEXIS)

The Xinhua News Agency. 3 February 1995. "El Salvador Bans Armed, Masked Demonstrations." (NEXIS)

The Xinhua News Agency. 11 November 1994. "Former Salvadoran Guerrilla Leader Assassinated." (NEXIS)



[1]1.           According to Amnesty International, on 29 October 1994, Valencia Palacios was allegedly beaten by two men who told him "that if Aids did not kill the 'faggots', they would" and that Valencia Palacios would be a "dead man" if he returned to the San Salvador neighbourhood where he had been distributing AIDS information (Dec. 1994, 1).

[2]2.           The FMLN, as a party to the 1992 peace accords, has a role in the implementation of the land transfer programme.

[3]3.           The FMLN was, in 1994, a coalition of five groups: the People's Renewal Expression (ERP), the Popular Liberation Forces (FPL), the National Resistance (RN), the Party of Central American Workers (PRTC) and the Salvadoran Communist Party (CPS) (Europa 1995 1995, 1091; Political Handbook of the World: 1994-1995, 1994, 266).

[4]4.           A July 1994 ONUSAL report found several agents had been "improperly added" to the anti-drug unit (The Christian Science Monitor 3 Feb. 1995; Keesing's Feb. 1995, 40403). In a side agreement to the 1992 peace accords, the anti-drug squad was not disbanded but was transferred in 1993 as a unit into the new civilian police force (Mesoamerica Dec. 1994, 3; Jane's Intelligence Review 1 July 1994). The 1994 ONUSAL investigation into the squad revealed several problems with the unit, concluding that it "'functioned with an excessive level of autonomy'" (The Christian Science Monitor 3 Feb. 1995).

[5]5.           According to Jane's Intelligence Review, the PNC formed the anti-riot unit (Grupo de Respuesta Antimotines) in response to "constant civil disorder" (1 Aug. 1995).

[6]6.           Under broadcast law, only commercial or national radio stations may be licensed (CAR 15 Feb. 1996, 7). The community radio stations had broadcast from former guerrilla-controlled areas (Mesoamerica Jan. 1996, 3; El Diario de Hoy 6 Dec. 1995b) and were founded under the 1992 peace accords as civilian public information services (CAR 15 Dec. 1995, 6).

[7]7.           Former ARENA president Cristiani had granted amnesty to those found by the 1993 UN Truth Commission to have been involved in political violence during the civil war (Mesoamerica Apr. 1996, 4; IPS 10 Mar. 1996). However, Romero is not eligible for amnesty because he is accused in a case that happened after the decree (Mesoamerica Apr. 1996, 4).

[8]8.           Roberto D'Aubuisson founded the ARENA party and was implicated in death squad activities in the 1980s (IPS 27 June 1996; AI 10 July 1996).

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