Freedom in the World 1999 - Bahrain

1999 Scores

Status: Not Free
Freedom Rating: 6.5
Civil Liberties: 6
Political Rights: 7

Overview

Sheikh Hamad bin Isa al-Khalifa became emir of Bahrain after the death of his father, Sheikh Isa Bin Sulman al-Khalifa, in March 1999. By year's end, Shi'ite-led opposition groups campaigning for the restoration of parliament were disappointed by the new emir's failure to initiate democratic reform. Although the government made some conciliatory gestures toward the opposition, summary arrest, forcible deportation, and torture of suspected opposition activists continued throughout 1999.

Bahrain has been ruled by the al-Khalifa family since 1782. The country was a British protectorate from 1861 until 1971, when British forces withdrew after years of Arab nationalist disturbances. The emir retained a virtual monopoly on power until the adoption in 1973 of a constitution that provided for a partially elected national assembly. Describing Bahrain's new legislative body as "obstructionist," the emir ordered its dissolution in 1975.

With the Iranian revolution in 1979 and the accompanying spread of Islamic fundamentalism, resentment among Bahrain's majority Shi'a population against its Sunni rulers intensified. Opposition activists were arrested and exiled in large numbers in the 1980s and 1990s. Responding to international calls for political liberalization, Sheikh Isa appointed a consultative council of 30 business and religious leaders in 1993.

The arrest of a Shi'ite cleric and several former Sunni parliamentarians in 1994 for petitioning for the reinstatement of parliament and the release of political detainees sparked civil unrest that has killed more than 40 people to date. According to international human rights monitors, the Bahraini government has arrested thousands of people, sentenced hundreds to jail terms, and expelled some 500 people. Security forces routinely raid homes and beat and arrest families. The government flatly rejects criticism of its rights record and blames Iran for inciting unrest. Political analysts and private sector businessmen, however, blame the government's failure to resolve widespread social and economic disparities, and particularly unemployment, which stands at about 30 percent in the Shi'a community.

Under pressure from opposition and international human rights groups, Sheikh Hamad allowed Amnesty International to visit Bahrain in June 1999 for the first time in 12 years. He also ordered the release of 320 political detainees and pardoned 12 political exiles. Among those released was Sheikh Abdul Ameer al-Jamri, a former parliamentarian and leading Shi'ite activist convicted in July of spying and inciting unrest. Al-Jamri had been held without trial since 1996.

Despite conciliatory gestures, the government continued to repress Shi'ite activism, tried and sentenced political detainees en masse prior to Amnesty International's visit in order to reduce the number of administrative detainees, and forced al-Jamri to make a humiliating apology in return for his pardon. Many observers believe that true political reform is unlikely as long as neighboring Saudi Arabia opposes the spread of democracy in the region. Moreover, Sheikh Hamad has retained his late father's prime minister, Sheikh Khalifa bin Salman al-Khalifa, who apparently authored the hardline position that the government has taken toward the opposition since 1994. According to exiled reformers, prospects for reconciliation remain weak and the political atmosphere remains volatile.

Political Rights and Civil Liberties

Bahrainis cannot change their government democratically. Political parties are prohibited, and most opposition leaders are currently either imprisoned or exiled. The emir rules by decree and appoints all government officials, including the 15-member cabinet, the 40-member Majlis al-Shura (parliament), the urban municipal councils, and the rural mukhtars (local councils). Citizens may submit petitions to the government and appeal to the emir and officials at regularly scheduled audiences.

The interior ministry maintains informal control over most activities through informant networks. Agents may search homes without warrants and have used this authority frequently against Shi'ites. Despite the decreasing frequency of violent antigovernment protests, the London-based Bahrain Freedom Movement reported dozens of cases in which security forces arrested and severely beat men, women, and even young children in early-morning raids during 1999.

The 1974 State Security Act allows authorities to detain individuals suspected of "antigovernment activity," which includes participation in peaceful demonstrations and membership in outlawed organizations, for up to three years without trial. Detainees are subject to torture, forced confessions, incommunicado detention, and inadequate prison conditions. In 1999, the government pardoned over 500 political prisoners. Authorities do not release information about the numbers of detained or the identities of detainees, but it is believed that more than 1,000 people remain in prison for political reasons. In June, the government began holding summary trials to sentence many of these prisoners, thus reducing the number of administrative detainees in time for Amnesty International and United Nations visits. The Bahraini government delayed a scheduled October 1999 visit by the UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention on the grounds that the new emir will need time to "remedy the situation." The visit is expected in October 2000.

The Bahraini government continued to deport people considered to be security threats. According to the U.S. State Department, those who accept foreign citizenship or passports or who engage in "antigovernment activities" abroad forfeit their Bahraini citizenship. The London-based Bahrain Freedom Movement reported numerous cases of forcible deportation in 1999.

The judiciary is not independent. Members of the al-Khalifa family serve as judges in courts at all levels. Security trials are held in secret, the right to an attorney is limited, and verdicts are not subject to appeal. A 1999 decree requires that those convicted in state security courts pay compensation for damages or face extended jail terms. Four Shi'ite civil judges may not handle cases deemed politically sensitive.

Freedom of speech and of the press is sharply restricted. Privately owned newspapers refrain from criticizing the ruling family, while radio and television are government-owned and broadcast only official views. According to Human Rights Watch, access to the Internet has been easily obtainable since 1995. No authorization is required to launch a website, although authorities have blocked websites and reportedly monitor Internet use. A small number of Bahrainis have been detained or questioned on suspicion of using the Internet to transmit information to opposition groups outside the country.

Political parties and organizations are prohibited. Some professional societies and social or sports clubs may serve as forums for political discussion, but they may not engage in political activity. In 1998, the prime minister dissolved the bar association, the only association exempt from the ban on political activity. Bahrainis are not permitted to demonstrate, and even peaceful protests are met with intimidation by security officials.

Bahraini women may own and inherit property, represent themselves in public and legal matters, obtain passports and leave the country without permission of a male relative, work outside the home, drive without escorts, and wear clothing of their choice. A non-Bahraini woman will automatically lose custody of her children if she divorces their Bahraini father. Labor law does not discriminate against women, but there is discrimination in the workplace, including wage disparity and denial of opportunity for advancement. In December, Bahrain appointed its first woman ambassador. Sheikha Hayya bin Rashid al-Khalifa will be the government's new envoy to France.

Islam is the state religion, and Bahrainis are overwhelmingly Muslim. According to the U.S. State Department, Christians and other non-Muslims, including Jews, Hindus, and Baha'is, are free to practice, maintain places of worship, and display religious symbols. Sunni Muslims enjoy favored status with the government. Shi'as were permitted, beginning in 1999, to work in the defense force and the interior ministry, though they may not hold significant posts. Shi'as generally receive inferior educational, social, and municipal services. In a conciliatory gesture, the new emir declared the Shi'a religious celebration of Ashura a national holiday and donated rice and lamb to some 500 Shi'a congregations.

Independent labor unions and collective bargaining are nonexistent. The law restricts strikes deemed damaging to worker-employer relations or national interest, and few strikes occur.