UK Home Office Immigration and Nationality Directorate Country Assessment - Colombia

April 2002

Country Information and Policy Unit

1. SCOPE OF DOCUMENT

1.1 This assessment has been produced by the Country Information & Policy Unit, Immigration & Nationality Directorate, Home Office, from information obtained from a variety of sources.

1.2 The assessment has been prepared for background purposes for those involved in the asylum determination process. The information it contains is not exhaustive, nor is it intended to catalogue all human rights violations. It concentrates on the issues most commonly raised in asylum claims made in the United Kingdom. It represents the current assessment by the Immigration & Nationality Directorate of the general socio-political and human rights situation in the country.

1.3 The assessment is sourced throughout. It is intended to be used by caseworkers as a signpost to the source material, which has been made available to them. The vast majority of the source material is readily available in the public domain.

1.4 It is intended to revise the assessment on a 6-monthly basis while the country remains within the top 35 asylum producing countries in the United Kingdom.

1.5 An electronic copy of the assessment has been made available to the following organisations:

Amnesty International UK

Immigration Advisory Service

Immigration Appellate Authority

Immigration Law Practitioners' Association

Joint Council for the Welfare of Immigrants

JUSTICE

Medical Foundation for the care of Victims of Torture

Refugee Council

Refugee Legal Centre

UN High Commissioner for Refugees

2. GEOGRAPHY

2.1 Colombia is the fourth largest country in South America with an area of 1,141,748 sq km and a population of approximately 41.141,748 million (1999 official mid-year estimate), of whom about 6.260,862 million live in the capital, Bogota. [2b] The country is characterised by three mountain ranges – the western, central and eastern cordilleras. The physical geography means that large areas are very sparsely populated and in some areas civil unrest has caused people to move to the towns and cities. In March 1997 United Nations' and Colombian human rights organisations reported that on average 500 people are displaced from their homes each day, driven out by violence. [19] Colombians are Spanish speaking and about 95 % of the population are Roman Catholic with small Protestant and Jewish minorities. [2a]

2.2 Administratively, Colombia is divided into 32 Departments (and the Capital District), subdivided into Provinces. The provinces are further subdivided into Municipalities. [2a,20ab] Commentators have noted that Colombia is very diverse in its geographical areas, and may be regarded as a unity only as a geographical and legal entity rather than as an integrated political reality. [8d]

3. HISTORY

Early history see sources [2a],[3a],[6a],[6b].

A. Recent History

3.1 The political violence of the 1940s and1950s (La Violencia), the emergence of guerrilla movements in the mid-1960s, and then of Self-defence units (autodefensas) organised mainly by property owners in the 1980s, created the basis of the conflict which has lasted up to the present day. The anti-guerrilla groups/paramilitary death squads were associated with the drugs trade and were also believed to have links with the security forces. [2a,6b] Guerrillas suffered heavy losses in 1982 in counter-insurgency operations and also at the hands of one of the most well-known paramilitary death squads, Muerte a Secuestradores/ Death to Kidnappers (MAS). These death squads, backed by drugs and land-owning interests, attacked anyone or any group that could loosely be interpreted as sympathetic to the left (peasant leaders, trade unionists, left-wing lawyers), while the guerrilla groups sought to pursue any target that might further their influence and force their admission to the political arena. [6b]

3.2 In 1982 the newly-elected President Belisario Betancur Cuartas sought stability by declaring an amnesty for guerrillas and ordering an investigation into MAS. As peace talks were held M-19 (Movimiento 19 de Abril – established in the early 1970s) emerged as one of the most influential of the left-wing guerrilla groups but progress was slow and in 1984 the Minister of Justice, who had actively pursued the drugs industry, was assassinated. In June 1985 M-19 withdrew from the peace process blaming continued harassment by the armed forces for their decision. Subsequently, eleven judges were amongst at least one hundred killed during a siege mounted by M-19 at the Palace of Justice in Bogota in November 1985. [6b] In the same year the guerrilla group FARC (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia) and the PCC (Communist Party of Colombia) established the Union Patriotica (UP) as a means of enabling former guerrillas and other Marxists to enter the political process. [7a]

3.3 The new party won seats in both houses of the Congress but immediately became the target for paramilitary death squads. Between 1985 and 1987 around 450 members of the UP were killed. The Up had some political success in the 1986 elections, winning three Senate and five Lower House seats. Six guerrilla groups including FARC, the ELN and M-19, formed the Coordinadora Guerillera Simon Bolivar (CGSB) to negotiate with the authorities in 1987. In 1988 President Barco announced a three phase programme designed to integrate the guerrillas into the democratic system. [2a] In spite of these measures President Barco enjoyed little success in tackling the problems of political violence and the cultivation and trafficking of illicit drugs. [5] (See Drugs Trade)

3.4 In the run up to the 1990 Presidential elections M-19 was granted amnesty, renounced its weapons, and became a political party, later known as the Alianza Democratica or ADM-19. The incoming Liberal President, Cesar Gaviria Trujillo, who was strongly opposed to the drugs cartels introduced a new constitution in 1991. This "..preserved the existing institutional framework of a President and a bicameral legislature (102 seat Senate and 161 seat House of Representatives)", and also aimed to "encourage greater political participation and to restrict electoral corruption and misrepresentation". It also sought to protect civil liberties, including an individual's right to social welfare, education, recreational activities and sexual equality. [2a]

3.5 In August 1990 the guerrilla movement EPL split, with one arm continuing the armed struggle while the other gave up its arms and joined the political mainstream as the Partido de Esperanza, Pay y Libertad (EPL), along with Comando Quintin Lame and the Partido Revolucionarias de Trabajadores (PRT). While attempts to reach an agreement with these less fanatical guerrilla groups continued, those who demonstrated a willingness to compromise tended to fall foul of the more hard-line groups. In January 1994 FARC were allegedly responsible for the murder of 30 EPL members. [2, 7c]

3.6 The Liberal and Conservative factions dominated the 1994 congressional and local elections and the left-of-centre vote was seriously reduced. On 7 August 1994 Liberal candidate Ernesto Samper Pizano was installed as President. It was alleged that his election campaign had been heavily underwritten by the Cali drug cartels, with an admission of such by Defence Minister, Fernando Botero, who managed President Samper's campaign. Botero was jailed, but Samper survived an inquiry by Congress. [2, 13b]

3.7 In November 1994 the Samper administration sought to include the guerrillas in peace talks, placating the Left. An introduction to talks stalled as FARC and the ELN launched new offensives in late May 1995. In August 1995, President Samper declared a country wide 'state of internal commotion' for a 90-day period, as around 600 civilians died as guerrillas and paramilitaries sought to dominate Uraba, North West Colombia. This state of internal commotion was subsequently extended for three further 90-day periods and was only lifted in late July 1996. [2a]

3.8 During 1996 and 1997 killings by paramilitary groups increased significantly and the military failed to give priority to confronting these groups. During the first 9 months of 1997, credible sources have alleged that members of paramilitary groups committed 69 percent of all politically motivated extrajudicial killings. Allegations of links between the military and paramilitary groups continued. [3a, 19] (See Recent history: 3.28, Security: 4.4 and Human Rights: Introduction: iii) Security Forces)

3.9 In 1998 Samper's administration continued to be under pressure to address the deteriorating situation. Land reform is seen to be central to Colombia's problems, with left and right factions battling for control of farmland and roads to market. Many peasants are suspected of association with the opposing side and fall victim to 'tit-for-tat' attacks. [19]

3.10 The guerrilla presence strengthened in the central and eastern mountain districts of Colombia. Guerrillas began to form 'Bolivarian militias' in order to establish roots in the urban slum districts. The military made little progress in countering guerrilla activity, partly because of its lack of manpower, resources and tactical errors. [8a] In September 1997 the army launched its most important military offensive in the last six years against the FARC in the jungle of Llanos del Yari, 300kms from Bogota. The offensive also affected Meta, Guaviare and Caqueta departments. More than 3000 troops were supported by air force aircraft and helicopter gunships. The wide-scale operations caused serious casualties to guerrillas and affected the indigenous population of Llanos. [18]

3.11 On 20 July 1997 Samper pledged to set up a National Council for Peace comprising politicians and representatives of social and labour organisations. [13a] This was installed in April 1998. [14f] (See Current Situation: 3.31 and Human Rights Introduction: vii) Peace Talks) President Samper promised a military crackdown on the leftist guerrillas and again pledged that the government would also punish right wing groups. Samper announced that representatives from both of these groups would be invited to attend peace talks [13a] . In December 1997 Samper announced new measures to counter paramilitary activities and outlined plans to fight all armed groups. [13h]

3.12 The violence continued in 1998. In February it was reported that a right-wing death squad had killed at least 48 people in Puerto Assis in Putumayo province. The victims were alleged guerrilla sympathisers. [14a] This report was followed by allegations that some of the killers had been flown into the area on military helicopters, strongly denied by General Hugo Galan. [14b] (See Security: 4.4, and Human Rights: Introduction: iii) Security Forces).

3.13 The lead up to the congressional elections also saw more bloodshed as the guerrilla rebels stated that they would do everything possible to prevent the elections being held. [14c] It was reported that at the beginning of March 1998 more than 100 soldiers and rebels died in heavy fighting in southern Colombia in what was thought to have been the worst defeat for the military at the hands of the guerrillas. [14d]

3.14 Voting for a new congress went ahead on 8 March despite the violence. President Samper issued a communique on 10 March in which he announced the victory of democracy over violence. The communique stated that absenteeism had dropped considerably compared with the parliamentary elections of 1994 and that incidents disrupting public order only adversely affected 0.14% of potential voters in the entire country. The ruling Liberal Party won the majority in Congress with over 50% of the seats in the Senate and the Chamber of Representatives in the elections. The new Senate comprised of 51 Liberals, 15 official Conservatives, 7 from new Conservative groups and 28 from independent movements. [14e]

3.15 On 2 April President Samper installed the National Peace Council with the aim of following up the preliminary peace agreement reached with the ELN (National Liberation Army). (The preliminary peace agreement was later suspended by the ELN.) Samper expressed hope that FARC (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia) would join the process and abandon its links with drug trafficking and its practice of kidnapping. [14f] (See Recent History: 3.24 and Human Rights: Introduction vii) Peace Talks)

3.16 The run up to the presidential elections saw an increase in rebel attacks. On 26 April the campaign offices of the Liberal Party presidential candidate, Horacio Serpa were bombed, killing one person. Guerrilla rebels were suspected of being behind what was thought to be the start of a wave of pre-electoral violence. [14r] On 12 May unknown gunmen killed Fernando Landazabal Reyes, a retired rightist army general who served as defence minister under President Betancur in the early 80s. [14v] This was followed by reports that Serpa's helicopter was attacked on 15 May when he was landing in Bolivar though he was unhurt. [14w]

3.17 The four leading candidates in the presidential election were as follows: Andres Pastrana, standing as an independent, though previously a Conservative still backed by the main opposition Conservative Party; Horacio Serpa Uribe, a member of the then ruling Liberal Party and Samper's chosen successor; Noemi Sanin Posada, a former foreign minister who presented an independent alternative to Colombia's traditional two-party system dominated by the Conservative and Liberal parties; Harold Bedoya Pizarro, former head of the armed forces. [14y]

3.18 The first round of the presidential elections took place on 31 May 1998. As neither Andres Pastrana nor Horacio Serpa won more than 50% of the votes needed for outright victory (Serpa gained 35.2% whilst Pastrana won 35%), a second round was arranged for 21 June 1998. On the election day there were reports of rebels burning ballot papers, downing power lines and blocking votes in a handful of rural townships. A guerrilla bomb in the northeast oil-refining town of Barrancabermeja exploded just before the polls opened, killing three civilians and wounding two soldiers. In another incident, a wounded soldier was shot dead in an ambulance at a rural guerrilla roadblock. Despite this the Interior Minister, Alfonso Lopez declared the day a total success. [14z]

3.19 Andres Pastrana, the Conservative Party candidate, won the presidential run-off on 21 June 1998, beating President Samper's chosen successor and ending 12 years of Liberal Party rule. Pastrana won the election with 50.4% of the ballot, 46.4% for Horacio Serpa. Pastrana promised both before and after the election to make the implementation of a peace policy his first responsibility [14aa,14ab] The election day was once again marred by violence. [14ac]

3.20 Pastrana pledged to take steps towards peace and on 28 June 1998 the ELN (National Liberation Army) and Civil Society signed an agreement, in a move independent of Government negotiations, to begin peace negotiations at Mainz, Germany, agreeing that the peace negotiations would take place outside Colombia. [14ad] The President-elect also met with leaders of FARC. [14ae]

3.21 A coalition of political forces that support the new administration of Andres Pastrana took control of Congress in July 1998. The coalition, which ended 12 years of control by the Liberal Party, was formed by Conservatives, dissident and pro-government Liberals and independents. Conservative Fabio Valencia was elected president of the Senate and Emilio Martinez, a Liberal, as president of the Chamber of Representatives. A group of Liberals who continued to be loyal to Horacio Serpa Uribe, the former presidential candidate and leader of the Liberal Party, were left as the opposition minority. The new Congress was elected for a four-year term. [14af]

3.22 President Samper conceded on 20 July 1998 that his 1994 election campaign was partly funded with drug money. However, he insisted that he knew nothing about it at the time. The admission came during his speech to inaugurate a new Congress. [14ag] Samper followed this confession nine days later with a public apology for the security forces murdering a total of 49 people in five separate incidents between 1991 and 1993. All the killings allegedly took place before he took office in 1994. His apology was part of an accord brokered by the Inter-American Human Rights Commission, which reports to the Organisation of the American States. [14ah]

3.23 Pastrana took office amidst the violence that, in the five days leading up to his installation on 7 August, was reported to have resulted in the deaths of more than 300 people, including 40 civilians. In his inaugural speech Pastrana pledged to make his administration "the cleanest of all Colombian governments" and affirmed that peace was his most urgent task in the country's agenda. [14h,14I,14j]

3.24 One of the guerrilla group FARC's conditions was that talks would only be held after the government agreed to demilitarisation. It was reported that on 9 July 1998 Pastrana had held face-to-face talks with the head of FARC. The talks were apparently set up by the Red Cross and were said to have taken place at an undisclosed location in eastern Meta province. During the meeting Pastrana was said to have agreed to a demilitarisation of five municipalities in the south – one of the guerrillas' conditions for participation in a peace process. [14ae] On 14 October 1998 it was announced that, beginning on 7 November and for 90 days, the army would withdraw from five of the country's municipalities to comply with the demands of the guerrillas and allow the peace talks to commence. [14o,14p] By November 1998 the peace process was threatened when FARC accused the government of reneging on its pledge . [14aj]

3.25 Members of the Peace Commission also met with several paramilitary leaders in an attempt to persuade them to join the peace negotiations along with the guerrillas. The senior leader of the paramilitaries, Carlos Castano, publicly stated that he was prepared to engage in talks with the new administration but warned that the demobilisation of his men could take place only when the guerrillas laid down their weapons. It was reported that a seven-point agreement was signed, endorsed by the national government. The paramilitaries promised peace talks at the same time as the guerrillas and not to involve civilians in their clashes with the guerrillas. [14ai,14g] On 3 December 1998 the paramilitaries declared an 18-day Christmas cease-fire and promised to halt attacks on the guerrilla groups and leftist sympathisers. The AUC (outlawed United Self-Defence Forces of Colombia) called on the guerrillas to join in the cease-fire. FARC leaders remained adamant that they would not engage in negotiations until the government ordered the final soldiers out of the demoralised zone. In the opinion of FARC, the president's reasons for maintaining the unarmed recruits in the region were not acceptable because, as president-elect, he had agreed to a total withdrawal from the towns of Uribe, Vistahermosa, Macarena, Mesetas and San Vicente de Caguan. [14al]

3.26 Immediately after the Christmas ceasefire there was a resurgence of paramilitary terror. At least 140 people accused of being left-wing sympathisers were reported to have been murdered by hooded vigilantes calling themselves the Self-Defence Force of Colombia. The group blamed the violence as its response to being "left out" of the peace negotiations under way between FARC and the Government. The attacks began on 7 January, the day the left-wing rebels initiated peace talks with the government to end the country's 40-year civil war. [15h] (See ii) Paramilitary and guerrilla groups.) Nevertheless, a preliminary meeting was held on 7 January 1999, followed by a second meeting on 14 January. A 10 point policy of peace for change was proposed by the government to the guerrillas. There was a further meeting on 26 January. [15a] Throughout, the violence persisted with skirmishes between guerrillas and paramilitaries. [14l,14m,14n]

3.27 On 14 January 1999 the Colombian government issued a communique on measures against self-defence groups. It pledged to undertake the necessary actions to promote the recommendations emanating from Commission 1290, which held a meeting on 8 January 1999, so that the various government institutions will establish concrete plans for the defence and protection of international humanitarian law. The government ordered the creation of a technical committee for intelligence planning which will aim to compile information that will ultimately lead to the capture of the principal members and the disintegration of the self-defence groups. The security forces were reported to have been ordered to redouble its actions against the groups. [15i]

3.28 On 29 January 1999 the government decreed an economic emergency for a period of 30 days after Armenia was hit by an earthquake, killing at least 907 people. After the earthquake the region experienced looting and the security forces had some difficulty in re-establishing order. [15b,15c] The paramilitary groups took advantage of the chaos, in the meantime, to step up their activities. Four human rights workers were abducted in Medellin and two others were killed. [15d]

3.29 It was reported on 17 February 1999 that Colombia's neighbouring countries were stepping up security on the Colombian borders. [15e]

3.30 In March 1999, the peace process came to another halt when it was reported that three American hostages, humanitarian workers working with the indigenous U'wa tribe, had been killed and their bodies were found across the border in Venezuala. Both FARC and the ELN initially denied involvement, but FARC later admitted that one of their Commanders acting unilaterally was to blame. [15f,15g] (See FARC)

3.31 The peace process provided FARC with a demilitarised zone the size of Switzerland. FARC has refused calls for a ceasefire and ELN was excluded from the peace process whilst it held captives. The start of official peace talks were postponed indefinitely in July 1999 after negotiators failed to agree on the creation of a team of international observers. [15w] The government and FARC finally established peace talks with October 7 initially set as a date for talks, but again delayed by FARC's rejection of international verification. October 24 was finally agreed upon. [16al,16am] FARC has continued to object to international "interference". [17db]

3.32 Talks on the 24 October 1999 were staged in the demilitarised zone set up in July 1998, around San Vicente del Caguan, and now given over to FARC control. [16x,16ba]. Notably, the talks were the first with a defined agenda and without international mediation. [16am] In a pre-talks move, the Government announced the proposal of setting up local forums for the meeting of the Government, civilian bodies, and rebel organisations, with a central operations centre based in San Vicente del Caguan, maintaining a website for contributions from ex-patriot Colombians. FARC expressed concern about rebel participants' safety. [16ba]

3.33 The inauguration ceremony started an hour later than planned. [16am] As the 24 October talks began, a march by 5 million people for peace was staged throughout Colombia, with 2 million marching in Bogota. [16an] A twelve point agenda was begun, and the talks moved on to a second day, 2 November. [16ba] The talks broke down after FARC produced a list of preconditions to a ceasefire and a series of retaliatory actions on both sides. [16cf] A new date was set on 21 November for talks on 4 December. [16ch]

3.34 After the stalling of peace talks with FARC on 2 November 1999, the president took an unexpected turn (unexpected by all observers) when, on 8 November, he announced the creation of a 'National Advisory Commission for Peace'. [16bk] At same time, he called for a one month ceasefire beginning 15 December 1999 "for the Millennium". [16bl] The ELN announced they were looking into the ceasefire's 'viability', making it conditional on the paramilitaries' multilateral acceptance. [16bz]

3.34 The peace talks with FARC scheduled for 4 December 1999, started on Friday 3 December. The government proposed a 30 day Christmas truce, starting on the 15 December. [17at] Even as the peace talks were to begin and were underway, both guerrillas and government forces put on shows of strength, with FARC notably attacking the town of Inirida with a force of 1,200 in late November. [17as] and the government rolling out the new Rapid Deployment Force on 7 December, three units backed up with 15 Blackhawk and 6 Mi-17 helicopters, and two Hercules transporter planes [17au] The 15 December truce date passed without an announcement of acceptance from FARC.

3.35 On 19 December 1999, the army distributed Christmas cards to the guerrillas. It was a further stage in an on-going effort to persuade guerrillas to desert, with the promise of lenient jail sentences or complete pardons and cash payments for decommissioning of arms. [17a] FARC then announced the first truce within a decade the next day, declaring "a unilateral truce in offensive actions against the state security forces". [17b] The truce was welcomed by the government, with some scepticism from army commanders. [17b] One of the main factions of the AUC, a leading paramilitary body, rejected any notion of a truce, and threatened to intensify their fight with the guerrillas in their area (the ELN in middle Magdalena). [17c] The end of the truce came with a FARC attack in Putomayo Department, killing 4 civilians, on 12 January, as a reply to the announcement of the $1.6 US anti-drugs military aid package. 20 guerrillas were killed in counter-attacks. [17l,11g]

3.36 Six senior members of FARC and a team of government delegates travelled through Europe on a fact-finding mission and extended negotiations trip, from 2 February to 25 February 2000. As the group travelled through Sweden, Norway, Switzerland, Italy, Spain and France, positive developments emerged. In Sweden, both sides agreed that peace was their common goal. [17ac] the Vatican gave its encouragement when the group arrived in Italy [11a] and by the end of the trip, FARC said it wished to pursue a similar trip to other Latin American countries and possible the USA as well. [11k]

3.37 According to one report, the peace process has been hampered by the many splinter terrorist groups – the report states 17 – that operate outside the main guerrilla groups. In many cases, the presence of a group is not known until they commit an atrocity. [17fp] (Details incorporated in Annex B, below). This aspect opened up in June 2000 the question of whether regional dialogues might again be permitted by the government – whereby regional governors talk to regional fronts of guerrillas – after the governors of Cundinamarca and Valle del Cauca Departments talked with "Alfonso Cano" of the FARC Bolivarian Party. [17dq]

3.38 The peace talks continued over the period April to September 2000 with little progress emerging. After the public and international attention on the "necklace bomb" incident of 15 May 2000, FARC was indignant that it was held to be responsible, and the major international 29 May talks looked as though they would not proceed, dropped by the government responding to the public outcry. On the 19 May, the government was able to meet FARC and on the 21 May, the peace Commission agreed that FARC had not been responsible for the atrocity. The peace talks were back on track by the 23 May. [17cg,17ch,17ci,17ck,17cl]

3.39 In early July 2000, FARC was complaining of the new High peace Commisioner's "quarrelsome attitude". [17dt] FARC would not contemplate a ceasefire unless there was a "reduction of social ills" and would continue kidnapping, armed actions and anything that would finance the "political means for the revolution" until "the government solved the problem of employment, housing, health and education." [17du,17dw] By mid-July 2000, the FARC was accusing the "militaristic right wing" of the government negotiating team of attempting to derail the peace talks. [17eb]

3.40 On 22 August 2000, FARC insisted that an exchange of prisoners was a more realistic goal for discussion than a cease-fire. The cease-fire had been a prime topic of discussion since 3 July. [17gg]

3.41 In late October 2000, in reponse to Plan Colombia, FARC warned the residents of Putumayo Department that the "worst is yet to come". FARC threatened to "burn alive" any populace of Putumayo who flees the Department, and on several occasions shot at refugees. Refugees talk of FARC coertion to join "the cause". FARC have established a total blockade around Putumayo. (see below at elections and FARC) [17jd] 650 refugees fled over the border to Venezuela in late October 2000. The Venezuelan authorities blamed tension over Plan Colombia. [17jc]

3.42 The FARC suspended the peace talks. On 14 November, spokesman Andreas Paris announced that FARC had taken exception to the government holding talks with Carlos Castano, leader of the AUC paramilitaries. [11as] The government in response, on the 16 November, was, in part, to grant a time extension to the DMZ, 20 days before the DMZ was due to wound up on the 7 December. [17js] This decision was reiterated through the National Peace Council on the 1 December 2000. [17jv]

3.43 After the New Year, when the president admitted that the peace process was still going to be a long and difficult process, [17dz] the prospect of renewal of the peace talks looked bleak. The government was insistent that it "would not beg" FARC back to the negotiating table, [18o] saying FARC must show "signs of peace" and unfreeze the talks. [18q] President Pastrana by the 26 January 2001 said that he was confident that by the end of the month "FARC will go back to the table". [18s]

3.44 A key element to the situation was the temporary time extension to the FARC DMZ running out on the 31 January. On the 27 January, "thousands" of Colombians demonstrated in events organised by Paz Colombia in Bogota, Medellin, Bucaramanga, and Pasto for the continuation of peace talks with the guerrillas. [18t] Likewise, the Peace Front in Congress called for the DMZ's extension. [18z] Carlos Castano, the leader of the AUC, surprised commentators by sending a letter on 26 January and further word on 3 February supporting continued peace talks. [18v,18ah]

3.45 Meanwhile, it was reported that the government had made alternative plans in case FARC did change their position. The army moved 5,000 troops to close to the DMZ on 25 January; the Bishop of the diocese of Sincelejo, Nel Beltran Santamaria, called for the taking of the DMZ if necessary. [18r,18u] One report later suggested that FARC had become nervous in the run-up to the deadline, and had started to mobilise for a withdrawl. [18ae]

3.46 On 29 January, it was reported that the peace commissioner, Camilo Gomez, had succeeded in making contact with Manual Marulanda, the FARC leader and figurehead. [18y] A four day "window" extension was then announced on 1 February, to enable Pastrana to meet Marulanda in the DMZ, and the extension was ruled as constitutional by the Constitutional Court on 2 February, deciding that the president was autonomous in this matter. [18aa,18ab] The president arrived at La Uribe airport, inside the DMZ on 3 February, and met with the local community. [18ac] Opinion was hopeful and supportive that the president would bring FARC back to the talks. [18ad]

3.47 By 8 February, news reports were emerging that Pastrana and Marulanda had met for five hours and that talks were back on track [11bb,18ai] The resumption of talks was settled for the 14 February. [11bc,18al] On 17 February, Pastrana came out of the renewed discussions, talking of the possibility of a ceasefire "within eighteen months", and FARC's agreement with plan Colombia as far as social investment was concerned. [18ap]

B. Current Political Situation

3.48 President Pastrana has had political difficulties since April 2000. [17gn] More than 80 percent of Colombians disapprove of his handling of the peace process, and only 25 percent approve of his presidency generally. The presidency has been rocked by the announcement by FARC of its "peace tax" and the resultant slide of the economy, and Pastrana's calling for a referendum to dismiss Congress. The opposition Liberal Party, the dominant party in the legislature, has said it would sponsor a referendum in which Pastrana's own mandate is put to a popular vote. The situation was diffused by a power-sharing accord reached in May 2000. [17co,17dc]

3.49 On 11 July 2000, Pastrana changed his cabinet, leaving only the Defence and Foreign Ministers in post. [17ei] The presidential website proclaimed that "this is a national unity cabinet, an open cabinet and with a significant presence of women in keeping with the law." [17ef] The Liberal Party was outraged by Pastrana's move, and rejected the "national unity" cabinet. [17ec]

3.50 By early August, public polls showed little confidence in Pastrana, with a leading newspaper summing up the general mood as "there is a feeling that Pastrana has not met the challenge (of the presidency), that he underestimated its complexity." [17fm] Public polls taken in late August 2000 showed 56 percent of respondents favoured direct US military intervention as a solution to the country's problems. [17gn,17go]

3.51 The period after the US financial input to Plan Colombia saw popularity for Pastrana momentarily climb, but by early November 2000, the president's rating had hit new heights (70 percent in the National Consulting Centre monthly survey). [17ee] FARC freezing peace talks from November 2000, compounded with time running out for the FARC Demilitarized Zone in late January, a weak economic recovery prompted commentators to give a gloomy assessment for the president. [17cf] Though the end of the year 2000 looked bleak, the end of year presidential speech emphasised that peace negotiation was going to be a long but ultimately successful process. [17dz] As the DMZ deadline of January 31 approached, the political temperature increased, with the DMZ extended by 4 more days to facilitate a favourable ruling by the Constitutional Court and for Pastrana to visit the DMZ and make contact with Manual Marulanda, the FARC leader. [18y-18ad,18ai]

3.52 On 23 February 2001, President Pastrana reshuffled the cabinet, one of the changes being the post of interior minister, with Armando Estrada Villa replacing Humberto de la Calle. [18ar] Within a week, Estrada Villa was talking of contacting and negotiating with the AUC. [18ax] Such negotiations with armed groups has split regional governors and strained political loyalties. [18az]

3.53 Horacio Serpa, the Liberal Party leader, brushed off a guerrilla death threat on 18 September 2001, and declared his intention to continue his full involvement with protest against all sides in the conflict. [11cd] Meanwhile the National Police and DAS (the secret service) uncovered a plot to kill President Pastrana. Two men were arrested on 24 September 2001, and identified as having links with the AUC. [11ch, 11ci] Former culture minister, Consuelo Araujo, was kidnapped in late September 2001, reportedly held in the FARC DMZ, and her body was reported as found on 1 October 2001. [11cg,18dj,11cj]

3.54 There has been a planned increase in government spending for the year 2002, with a government budget set at 62.5 trillion Pesos as opposed to a 2001 budget of 57 trillion Pesos. [18ct]

3.55 In May 2001, the security forces pressed for tighter anti-terrorist legislation. The calls came after a particularly violent car-bomb attack in Medellin. [18cb] On 15 June 2001, the Congress passed a law that gave the security forces the new powers that they had wanted. New powers included the military's right to perform autopsies and other forms of forensic investigations; and to be able to take control of civilian functions in times of war. Clauses on "preventative arrests" were however dropped from the bill. [18cc]

3.56 In June 2001, Congress gave the final approval needed for a constitutional amendment that changes how central-to-local government payments are set. Outside Congress, workers in the health and education sectors had protested vigorously against the finance bill, as they felt that their sectors were going to suffer from the new arrangements. [18ce]

The Congressional Election, March 2002

3.57 The results of the recent congressional election indicated that Colombians strongly rejected the traditional ruling two-party system of the Conservative and Liberal parties in favour of the independent parties and candidates. [12h] President Pastrana's Conservative party, saw its presence in both the Senate and the House of Representatives severely diminished. The Conservative Party returned only 21 of its members to the 166 member House of Representatives and secured just 13 seats in the 99 member Senate. [12h]

3.58 The Liberal Party lost its near-majority in the Senate, losing 19 of its seats, thus cutting its bloc from 48 to 29 senators. In the House of Representative it lost 31 seats. Overall in the new Congress, the Liberal Party is represented by only 53 members as opposed to the 84 members it had before this election. [12h]

3.59 By contrast, the smaller independent parties gained, collectively, an absolute majority in both Houses: 92 of the 166 seats in the House of Representatives, and 57 of 99 seats in the Senate. [12h]

3.60 Results show that independents of both left and right including the former M-19 guerrilla Antonio Navarro and supporters of hardline independent presidential candidate Alvaro Uribe Velez gained the highest vote totals. [8h][12h] Navarro is the leader of the independent political movement Via Alterna, or the Alternative Path. [12h]

3.61 The congressional election campaign was overshadowed by a campaign of violence perpetrated by both the leftist guerrilla group FARC and its rival rightwing paramilitary groups. [22aa] According to different reports, as many as 100,000-150,000 soldiers and police were deployed to protect the polling stations. [22aa][8h] The government was forced to move 142 rural voting stations in a dozen provinces to the relative safety of nearby cities. The FARC and the rightwing paramilitaries are reported to have sought to influence the vote in key areas by allowing only loyal supporters to cast vote. In addition three congressional candidates have been killed during the campaign and five incumbents ran despite being held captive by the FARC. [22aa]

3.62 Despite the campaign of violence, of Colombia's almost 1100 municipalities, only 15 were unable to vote, mostly due to actions by the FARC, including in some cases where the FARC burned ballots. [8h]

3.63 Half of the more than 3000 congressional candidates fell into what government officials describe as the "high risk" category that qualifies them for bodyguards and armored cars, a higher proportion than ever before. [22aa]

The Presidential Election, 26 May 2002

3.64 Colombians are scheduled to go to polls in May 2002 to choose a successor for Pastrana whose term ends on 7 August 2002. [18ds] A runoff election will take place in June if no candidate obtains a simple majority in the first-round election. [18ds] The main presidential candidates are Horacia Serpa of the Liberal Party (Partido Liberal), Noemi Sannin of Yes Colombia, Liberal dissident Alvaro Uribe Velez and Luis Eduardo Garzon of the Social and Political Front. [18cm] The presidential pack was further increased when President Pastrana's political ally and a former Finance Minister Juan Camilo Restrepo declared his candidacy in November 2001. According to one Colombian newspaper, his candidacy totally changed the political map. [18cb] His nomination as the governing Conservative Party's presidential candidate is believed to have been engineered by President Pastrana who wished to bolster the electoral fortunes of the Conservative Party (Partido Social Conservador). [18cb][18ds]

3.65 However, after the March Congressional election, during which the Conservative Party was practically decimated, Juan Camilo Restrepo withdrew from the race and abstained from registering his candidacy. [11cu] Restrepo's withdrawal on 13 March 2002 left the Conservatives with no-one running for the presidency. During a press conference, Mr Restrepo said that his running for president "is not accompanied nor supported by all of the party. The Colombian people certainly did not support Restrepo's candidacy. In the last poll conducted, the Conservative candidate only enjoyed the support of 1% of those surveyed." [11cu]

3.66 As in the March congressional election, the non-traditional independent parties and candidates appear to lead the presidential campaign. The main beneficiary of the rise to prominence of the independents has been Alvaro Uribe Velez, a dissident from the Liberal Party. [11cu] There are indications that intensified attacks by the leftist guerrillas in spite of the ongoing peace talks, during the last three years, have hardened Colombians against a negotiated solution to the war and set the stage for the most ardent hard-line candidate to win the presidency this year. [22l] According to the opinion polls, the Oxford-Harvard trained lawyer Alvaro Uribe enjoys 60% popular support. His popularity has soared since President Pastrana called off the peace process and recaptured the DMZ on 20 February 2000. [22at] It is his hard-line anti-guerrilla stance and his willingness to take on Latin America's largest and oldest rebel force that has endeared him to the Colombians.

3.67 Uribe's security plan centres on doubling the number of professional Colombian troops to 100,000 soldiers and roping ordinary Colombians into intelligence activities that would involve issuing radios to a million people in the lawless countryside to call the military if they spot rebels. [22at][22aw] There are concerns that Uribe's security initiatives would drive the country to an all-out war, trample human rights and form unwieldy, armed civilian groups. In response to such criticisms, Uribe has dropped the idea of arming one million civilians and has picked the influential defender of human rights Francisco Santos as his running mate. [22aw]

3.68 Uribe has also pledged to close one chamber of the Congress and shut "unnecessary embassies". He also proposes to hike import tariffs to protect Colombian farmers and to subsidize utilities for the poor majority of his country. Fighting corruption and spurring the economy would raise enough cash to hire teachers and construction workers. [22at] Uribe's harsh criticism of the leftwing guerrillas and his emphasis on the need for security have attracted allegations of links to the rightwing paramilitaries. This Uribe denies. [22au][22av]

3.69 The election has brought political violence in its wake. On 23 February 2002, three days after the end of the peace talks, the presidential candidate Ingrid Betancourt was kidnapped as she travelled by land to San Vicente del Caguan in the heart of the DMZ. [22ay] A few days later the FARC admitted responsibility for the kidnapping and announed that it would give the government one year to negotiate Betancourt's release. According to the FARC, Betancourt was an addition to the group of kidnapped politicians to be exchanged for the release of jailed rebels. [22ay] On 21 March 2002, the rebel Colombian National Liberation Army (ELN) declared that all the radio stations in Norte de Santander Department that broadcast publicity for the presidential candidate Alvaro Uribe Velez to be military targets. "We declare to be a military target any person or element that tends to support the presidential candidacy of Alvaro Uribe and, as a result, from now on the regional radio stations are prohibited from transmitting messages which refer to that campaign," the ELN warned. [22az] On 15 April 2002, Alvaro Uribe himself escaped unhurt from a remote controlled explosion in the northern town of Barranquilla, which killed three other people. [11cv] Suspicion for the attack has fallen immediately on the FARC. [11cv]

4. THE STATE STRUCTURE

A. Political System

4.1 Executive power is exercised by the President (assisted by a Cabinet), who is elected for a four-year term by universal adult suffrage. Legislative power is vested in the bicameral Congress, consisting of the Senate (102 members elected for four years) and the House of Representatives (165 members elected for four years). The country is divided into 32 departments and one Capital District. [2a]

B. Security

4.2 In Colombia the Ministry of Defence is responsible for internal security, overseeing both the armed forces and the police, comprising of the Army (Ejercito Nacional), the Navy, which includes the Coast Guard and Marines (Armada Nacional), the Air Force (Fuerza Aerea Colombiana) and the National police (Policia Nacional). [3a,8g] The Department of Administrative Security (DAS) was set up in 1962 to organise intelligence gathering for the counter-insurgency effort. It is the only Colombian security agency which is directly responsible to the civilian authorities and is therefore independent from the armed forces. [6b] The DAS, with broad intelligence gathering, law enforcement, and investigative authority reports directly to the President. [3a]

The Armed Forces

4.3 The Colombian armed forces deal with the main issues of border security and defence against the guerrilla movements. The army is organised in eighteen brigade-level units, and works closely with the National Police, using intelligence gathered by both DAS and its own intelligence units.

4.4 The Colombian armed forces have in the past been demoralised and, in their own estimation, under-resourced. Since September 1997, they have regained areas of control. There has been pressure and promises from the United States to improve the Army in its actions against drugs growers and traffickers. The US aid deal is worth $1.5 billion over 3 years, and is currently (March 2000) going through the US Congress. The monies are to assist anti-drug programmes, but such a move has been criticised by NGOs as being partial to the military, and thus by implication the paramilitaries. Such an implication is prohibited by the operation of the Leahy law within the agreement, a legal aspect that expressly insists that all groups receiving US military assistance be vetted for human rights abuses. . [16d,16nnn,16sss,17bi] President Clinton overturned the Leahy law on August 22. [11n] (See Breakdown of human rights waiver)

4.5 US monies, according to one source, have been previously channelled to the Colombian police on the grounds that they have a better human rights record than the Colombian army. However, the US now views the police as needing further assistance in tackling the drugs trade, and will now be concentrating aid in Army based projects for increased strategic effectiveness. The US government has noted an improvement in human rights awareness over the years 1998 and 1999. [16j,17n] The need for discipline in human rights is important to the military to secure the US funds, as an injection of $1.5 billion over three years into a defence budget of $4 billion per annum (1998 figure) is seen as operationally significant. [16j,8g]

4.6 There has previously been US involvement in training and equipping, such as (with 18 helicopters) the elite anti-drugs battalion, launched on 15 September.. [16n,16bn] On 17 September, the launch of an elite anti-drug squad was announced [6n] The 1,000 strong unit started operations in December 1999, as part of the army's 1st battalion, La Jungla. [23a, 23e] The incidents of 17 November 1999, (killing 35 rebels, Puerto Inirida, Guainia Department [16by]; and 100 plus rebels generally in joint police / army operations after FARC attacks all over the country on 16 November [16bf] ) were interpreted by journalists as showing the effectiveness of the US training. Two new anti-narcotics battalions are being created with US aid, equipped with 30 Blackhawk and 33 Huey helicopters. [17n]

4.7 The Department of Antioquia has the largest military presence, according to Jane's Intelligence Review in December 1999, with three army brigades, a tactical air force squadron, marine infantry, and a large police presence. [20s]

4.8 July 1999 saw the introduction of reforms to the armed forces. A major reform of July 1999 was to drop the conscription of minors. Prior to July 1999, 4,000 minors were conscripted into the army at any given time . [17ah] UNICEF praised the army for changes in recruitment policy [17s] The Military penal code was also amended to improve transparency in the dealings of the military courts and their relationship with the civil process. [12e] Further reform has been undertaken in October 2000, with the armed forces dismissing 89 officers and 299 other ranks on 16 October 2000. [11ao,17jb,17hn]

4.9 Rodrigo Lloreda Caicedo, the former Colombian defence minister, the architect of the reforms, died from cancer on 13 January 2000. He resigned his post in the Pastrana government in May 1999 in protest at the institution of the FARC demilitarised zone. [17m] Lloreda was credited with the current restructuring of the army, boosting its air mobility and replacing conscripts with a volunteer force. [17m] Lloreda had a distinguished political career, most notably as a founder in 1983 of the Contadora Group of regional peacemakers, a diplomatic mechanism to achieve democratization, national reconciliation and development in the Central American region. [11k,8b,19a]

4.10 In July 2000, the army reiterated that the guerrillas dedicated to a plan to exterminate members of the security forces. Casualties of 91 soldiers killed, off-duty and unarmed, "over the past few months" were quoted. Likewise, 55 soldiers were kidnapped while on vacation. The departments in which uniformed officers run the greatest risk were given as Antioquia, Santander, Arauca, and Huila. [17eq]

4.11 The army claims that there are over 100,000 land mines still buried in minefields in about 15 percent of the country. The army says it has implemented the Ottawa Treaty, and since last year has not used anti-personnel mines. In 1998, over 100 people were killed by land mines, 55 of who were soldiers. [11bj] Another army report of July 2000 puts casualties from landmines planted by guerrillas since 1998 at 253 killed and 812 injured up to July 2000. [17ed]

4.12 Military service. Military service is compulsory for males between the ages of... If a male Colombian citizen is the "only child" of his parents (i.e. has no brothers or sisters), then he is exempted military service. [20aa]

4.13 To obtain a discharge from the military services, three routes may be taken – voluntarily, through the discretionary power of the President, and forcibly. Forcible discharge (retiro forzoso) occurs as the result of disciplinary proceedings. The discretionary power of the President occurs when the head of state decides that an officer must retire from service. It does not constitute a punishment, and is normally exercised due to operational requirements. It can only be effected on officers of over 15 years' service. An officer at any point of his or her military career can request a voluntary discharge. For up to the rank of colonel, the request is reviewed by an advisory board (junta asesora) whose decision in turn is approved by the Minister of Defence. For higher ranks, discharge is dependent upon a request directly to the President. [20z]

4.14 On 17 November 2000, the Army called for the recruitment of 10,000 more troops. The deputy defence minister, Bernardo Ortiz Bravo, stated that the extra troops were needed for the strengthening and modernising of the armed forces. He denied it was in response to FARC's pullout of the peace talks and rumoured recruitment drive. [11at]

4.15 Military service is compulsory, and regulated by Law n.48 and Presidential decree no. 2048 (both passed in 1993). All men between the ages of 16 to 28 years are liable for military service. [19c]

4.16 The period of service differs according to educational status – one year for graduates of secondary education (bachilleres), two years for others. Only 40% of bachilleres ever do military service. [19c]

4.17 Regarding military service evasion, young men who fail to respond to their call-up are declared remiss (remiso) and are unable to enter university, work or obtain a passport. Those who refuse to do military service are considered deserters. Conscientious objectors have no special CO status nor is there substitute service available. In practice they either desert or serve time as prison guards; sometimes, the army will drop them from service citing redundancy. [19c]

4.18 According to War Resisters' International Refusing to bear arms (1998) [19c] , the penalty for desertion during military service is between 6 months and two years' imprisonment, under Art 115 of the Military Penal Code. Penalties are doubled if the desertion occurs in wartime, in times of civil unrest, and in the vicinity of active service where rebel forces are in operation. (Art.116) The sentence is halved if the deserter gives themselves up within eight days of desertion. (Art. 117). [19c]

The Police

4.19 The National Police is organised police Departmental headquarters, coinciding with the 32 administrative Departments (departmento, pl. departmentos), and police officers carry military style ranks, except at the Executive level. [20i] The National police according to a 1999 source number 100,000 nationally, with 12,000 police in Bogota. [20x] In May 2000, the Bogota authorities announced that 100 CCTV cameras were to be deployed around the capital, to aid crime prevention and detection. [17cm]

4.20 The armed forces and the National Police work closely together, with specialist operations drawing from both groups, such as the anti-kidnapping forces, the GAULAs (see below at Kidnapping). [20s]

4.21 All crime is encouraged to be reported, with anonymous direct lines advertised. Victims of crime are required to make sworn statements (denuncias) at the start of an investigation, and are encouraged to do so as soon as possible after the crime. The police, or likewise the Fiscalia, will then bring a charge (querella) if they arrest a suspect. [20i, 20q, 33a, 33b] The Supreme Judicial Council (CSJ) has estimated, on the basis of a 1997 survey, that 63 percent of crimes go unreported, and 40 percent of all reported crimes go unpunished (no indication of how many crimes are linked to suspects and brought to trial). [3h]

4.22 Changes were announced in the National Police Directorate in October 1999. The success of the drug trafficking initiative, Operation Millennium, afforded General Rosso Jose Serrano the chance to change staff around. A new head of the Judicial and Investigative Police Directorate – the DIJIN – was appointed, General Leonardo Gallego, a respected and highly successful former Head of the Anti-Narcotics Police (ANP). [16vv]

4.23 Police presence has emerged as a problem in 2000 and 2001. A Semana magazine poll in January 2001 has lead to the conclusion critical of the government that many Colombians perceive police protection as lacking. The commentator reporting the Semana poll extends the argument, claiming that Colombians are increasingly looking to paramilitary groups for protection. He further argues that that political peace with the guerrillas may not affect the pervasive perception of imminent danger from violent crime. The commentator suggests an increase in numbers of police as a short term solution, in conjunction with a refinancing measure that splits cost between municipality and central government as a longer term solution. [18l]

4.24 In July 2001, there were further claims that the security forces were unable to provide adequate protection to rural communities, when the town of Peque was overrun first by the FARC and then the AUC. The fourth brigade of the Army was accused of being close by but not intervening. [18ci,18cr] The police, in August 2001, were however astonished by a claim by the FARC leader Marulanda that the security forces and particularly the police were responsible for the kidnapping rate, blaming the general lack of security in the country. [18cx] The police took this to be a perversion of their admittance earlier that week that they had a "limited capacity" to handle major emergencies. [18cy]

4.25 The question of impunity is of serious concern to the UNHCR. In its 1999 report, the Colombia Office of UNHCR highlighted that the Colombian authorities admit that barely 20 per cent of offences committed are investigated; there was a backlog of 214,907 unexecuted arrest warrants; the general atmosphere of violence and intimidation favours impunity; and investigators are often at risk of being murdered. In addition, overwork and shortage of funds and professional technical resources, similar overloading of the judicial system, and the general unwillingness of people to give sworn statements (denuncias) compound the problem of impunity. The Inter-American Commission for Human Rights (IACHR), in its 1999 report, has alleged that such impunity is structural and systematic in nature, and not simply a case of leaving numerous individual crimes unpunished. [20j]

4.26 In 1999, the rebel forces killed 360 policemen, injured 1,385 and kidnapped 280. [20x] The defence Minister, Luis Fernando Ramirez, in August 2000, admitted that security forces' response to rebel attack seemed to be slow. He explained that the irregular nature of the war hampered security efforts. He was asked to remark on the incident of the town of Arboleda being over run by over 300 FARC guerrillas on 29 / 30 July, killing 14 people, and pinning down the 26 policemen of the town for 24 hours before the town was relieved. [17fc,17fd,17fg,17fk] The police have announced that they will begin to build "bunkered" police posts capable of withstanding "any" guerrilla attack, at a cost of to 80 to 200 million pesos each. The objective would be to provide a security presence in 165 municipalities, out of a total of just over 1,000 municipalities, currently lacking a police presence. [17ej] In the summer of 2001, there were a number of mass releases of security force personnel kidnapped by the guerrillas: 242 police and soldiers released by the FARC on 28 June 2001 in Meta province [10c,18cf]; and 26 in Granada and 32 in Urrao on 30 June by the FARC in Antioquia province. [10d,10e]

4.27 The DAS and the US and Israeli police dismantled an arms trafficking ring in May 2000, after three years' investigation into a criminal gang's activities. The arms' deals were reportedly for 50,000 rifles, rocket and grenade launchers. [17cn] The authorities estimate that FARC transports arms in an average of two flights a week into the country. [17gm]

4.28 In August 2001, the combined security forces launched a major offensive against the guerrilla forces, and, according to government communiques, the paramilitaries as well. [10f,10h,11cf] The "August 7 Operation" mobilised at least 1200 [10f] and as much as 6000 [11cf] military personnel, with operations in the east of the country. Successes were held to have been scored against the ELN, with a disruption in their intelligence operations [18cz]; the FARC, with 24 FARC fighters killed [11cf]; and the paramilitaries with two fighters killed and weapons siezed. [10h]

Administrative Security Department (DAS)

4.29 The Administrative Security Department – Departmento Administrativo de Seguridad – DAS is an agency that reports directly to the President. DAS is independent of but works with the National Police and the armed forces (both of which are accountable to the Minister of Defence). [3c,20ag]

4.30 DAS's mission statement, stated on its website, is "to contribute to State security by producing strategic intelligence and safeguarding the integrity of the constitutional regime."[20ag]

4.31 The website states that there are four main branches: intelligence branch, a protection directorate, an investigations branch, and a foreign affairs directorate. The intelligence function is DAS's prime function, put as obtaining information required to control conduct and events that could be harmful to the country and its law and order. The foreign affairs directorate has migration of foreigners responsibilities including deportations. [20ag]

4.32 The last major report of allegations of DAS being involved in human rights violations was the US State Department country report for 1996. (source [3b]). [20ag]

C. The Judiciary

4.33 The Judicial system, which was reorganised under the revised 1991 Constitution, is largely independent of the Government and Congress. It includes the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court of Justice, the Council of State, the Higher Judiciary Council, tribunals and courts. In the main the system is held to be structured very much on the US model, with the exception of the bodies, Procuraduria General de la Nacion (Office of the Procurator General) and Fiscalia General de la Nacion (Office of the Attorney General or the Office of the Prosecutor General). [3b,20q]

4.34 The Fiscalia. An independent prosecuting body, the Office of the Prosecutor General (Fiscalia General de la Nacion), was created in 1991. The Fiscalia has both investigative powers as well as a representational role. The Fiscalia ensures that alleged offenders appear before the courts; qualify and exclude those investigations already realised; coordinate its activities with the National Police; and ensure the protection of victims, witnesses, and other participants in the process. The Fiscalia does not deal with cases of security forces' extrajudicial abuses. [3b,20i]

4.35 The Procuraduria. The office of the Procurator General is responsible for carrying out investigations and disciplinary hearings against State agents, both military and civilian. The Office is further divided into the offices of the delegate procurators (procuradurias delegadas) with delegate offices dealing with the Military forces, the National Police and the Judicial Police. The powers of the office include being able to investigate human rights violations and order sanctions against members of the military forces. Likewise, the office can intervene in proceedings of all courts, including the Military Courts service, when necessary to preserve respect for human rights. In practice, the use of such powers, up to September 1999, has been very limited in relation to criminal proceedings going through the military courts. [20q]

4.36 A military judge has filed a complaint with the Office of the Prosecutor-General about "pressure" put upon him by the National police director Rosso Jose Serrano after ordering Serrano's aide's arrest on a charge of corruption. The military judge, Diego Coley Nieto, has since been taken off the case. He alleged that he was "advised" to leave the country, but he did admit that he had thought about leaving Colombia voluntarily anyway [17y]

4.37 Threats to the Judiciary and the "faceless system of justice". The judiciary has long been subject to threats and intimidation from guerrillas, paramilitaries and drug interests. In the 1980s drug barons threatened to kill 10 judges for every Colombian extradited on drugs charges. They used bribery and intimidation to persuade most judges to release any of their members arrested. On 18 January 1989, 12 members of a judicial commission of enquiry in La Rochela were murdered by paramilitaries. These judges had been sent to investigate a series of political killings and disappearances attributed to paramilitary groups in that area. [6b]

4.38 The level of threat resulted in a 'faceless' system of justice being introduced in order to protect the anonymity of prosecutors, judges and witnesses alike. [3b] This system of regional justice reached its deadline for elimination on 30 June 1999. Against a backdrop of increasing violence, Congress voted for its continuance, with a few changes. [15s] From 1 July 1999, the "specialised judges" are responsible for investigation of crimes involving drug trafficking, terrorism, paramilitary activity and, in some cases, illegal enrichment. [15v]

4.39 The system has been criticised by human rights groups who believe that it violates legal norms and has procedural shortcomings, such as the difficulty for defence lawyers to cross-examine an anonymous witness. As a result of some of the concerns raised, judges can no longer base a conviction solely on the testimony of an anonymous witness . [3d] The 1999 legislation determining the specialised jurisdiction, which took over from the anonymous regional courts system on 1 July 1999, was ruled as unconstitutional by the Constitutional Court on 6 April 2000. The "faceless" system of government has now ceased. [3h]

4.40 The Constitutional Court struck several blows against impunity during 1997. In August it directed the separate judicial system, long accountable only to the uniformed military leadership, to relinquish to the civilian judiciary investigation and prosecution of human rights violations and other alleged crimes not directly related to acts of service. On September 23, the Constitutional Court declared null and void a statute of the Penal Code (dating from the 1930's) that prohibited punishment of politically motivated rebels for any criminal acts committed in combat, except those that constituted acts of savagery or barbarism. [3c]

4.41 It was claimed by human rights activists that, although in 1998 the Attorney General's Office issued a growing number of warrants for paramilitary leaders, including AUC leader Carlos Castano, the security forces made few arrests. A notable exception, however, was the capture of Victor Carranza, a powerful Castano ally, on February 25 1998. Human rights groups reported that the civilian security agency that captured Carranza did not notify security force agencies beforehand for fear they would alert him. [9b] In July 1999, reportedly for the first time in Colombia's legal history, a public hearing was held against Carlos and Fidel Castano. The brothers are accused of theft and destruction of their own fingerprint records and identity documents from the Public Registrar's Office. [15ae]

D. Prison System

4.42 The United Nations has recently described the Colombian prisons as overcrowded "hell". More than 54000 prisoners are cramped in 167 prisons throughout the country. A further 5000 are being held in police stations where the conditions are described as even worse. [18cg] According to one report, the country's jails hold 24 percent over their capacity of 41,191. [3i] Medellin's Bellavista prison, the country's largest, housed 6,219 inmates at the end of 2001 although it originally was built to house 1,800 inmates. [3i] 49% of prisoners have received no sentence at all and 76% are yet to receive a definitive sentence. [18cg] There are no separate facilities for pretrial detainees and convicted prisoners. [3i]

4.43 The living conditions are harsh where inmates live in close quarters and sanitation is poor. Many prisoners suffer from infectious diseases and Aids has reduced the immune system of the inmates. Prisons are also notoriously violent where rival gangs, guerrillas and paramilitaries wage a war behind the prison bars. [18cg]

4.44 On 22 October 1999, Reuters ran a television story with accompanying text and pictures on life in El Modelo prison, showing the FARC prisoners running a separate regime along FARC field camp lines. The news feature led to the director of the prison being sacked immediately [16ao,16aq] The National Prisons Institute – INPEC – recorded 203 murders inside jails between January and November 1999. [16at]

4.45 On 28 April 2000, fighting broke out between paramilitary prisoners and common criminal prisoners in El Modelo prison, two months after a much touted non-aggression pact. 26 prisoners were killed in the riots. The prison was in April 2000 holding 5,000 prisoners in accommodation built for 1,800. [17br] In July 2001, further riots led to a 15-hour control of the prison by inmates, with 10 prisoners killed, 15 wounded and large amounts of weapons and explosives being discovered once the authorities regained control. [18ch] The new prison in Valledupar should accommodate 1,600 prisoners and additional construction / modernisation programmes are under way.

E. Healthcare system

4.46 The Basic Country Health Profile of Colombia, produced by the Pan American Health Organization, an organisation acting in concert with the World Health Organization, gives a periodic summary of the Colombian health care system, issues associated with health in the country, and health policy and organisation. [19b]

4.47 Social security and health. Healthcare is subsidised in part, with grants of money from the National Solidarity and Guaranty Fund. It is a form of mandatory health insurance. All persons with an income equivalent to twice the minimum wage and above are required to make contributions to the Fund. Those people below this financial threshold are entitled to subsidised healthcare without contribution. The subsidised programs rely on a variety of taxes and duties, both local and national; grants from government and share of national expenditure; and copayments and prorated fees from the members of the fund (i.e. patients) and their families. [19b]

4.48 Health policy. The Compulsory Health Plan sets out national minimum standards of healthcare, promoting the principles of free and subsidised healthcare to the whole population. Its legislative background is found in Law 100, which incidentally specifies that local government health initiatives are provided free to the entire community. The Basic Health Care Plan covers the delivery of those objectives. [19b]

4.49 Organisation and delivery. The chief organisations of the healthcare system are the Health Promotion Enterprises. They work to bring health policy to fruition; they are responsible for the basic mobilisation of financial resources, health promotion, and the organisation and delivery of medical services. They work with a variety of health plans: public, private, partnership-based, or mixed. [19b]

4.50 Institutions that provide health services (hospitals, GPs clinics, medical laboratories, etc) offer their services through the health promotion enterprises. Law 100 guarantees their right to administrative, technical and financial autonomy from the State; thus, public hospitals are social enterprises of the State run as a special type of decentralised public entity. [19b]

4.51 Treatments and pharmaceutical products. The Compulsory Health Plan has a list of essential drugs (currently about 300 principles and 435 presentations). This list regulates treatments given in the healthcare institutions, establishing a quality control of pharmaceuticals to the healthcare system. Decree 677 (promulgated in 1995) regulates all use and quality of pharmaceutical products.

4.52 "Because essential drugs are included in the Compulsory health Plan and must be referred to by their generic names, the private market has deferred to the institutional market of the health promotion enterprises and the health service delivery institutions." A result of this domination by the public institutions means that public hospitals average 79 percent discounts on the price of pharmaceutical products on market price, and are

4.53 Doctors, between graduating in medicine and professional practice, are subject to Mandatory Social Service (Servicio Social Obligatorio or SSO). SSO obliged doctors and other medical professionals to work in public hospitals after their internship. SSO has been in operation for several years and, up and until 1999, SSO lasted one year. In 1999, it was proposed the time cutting down to six months. Once SSO is completed, or if medical studies abroad have a contractural waiver built in, the doctor can receive his professional licence. [20ah]

4.54 Doctors and other health professionals are vunerable to targeting by rebel and paramilitary groups, particularly those medical professionals assisting human rights and humanitarian organisations in bringing medical services to particularly violent areas. The Canadian IRB were unable to find reports of police protection schemes specific to medical staff and facilities. [20ai]

4.55 Specific Conditions. (Note: This is not meant to be a comprehensive list, but to assist in giving information required by recent enquirers.)

4.56 Use of Penicillin (Sp. Penicilia) in Colombian healthcare. A leading doctor at the Department of Health, University del Valle, Cali (Sp. Facyltad de Salud, Universidad del valle, Cali) Perez Starusta, MD. Has written authoritative papers on the use of penicillin and variants in the treatment of rheumatic fever and attendant cardiac complications in rural Colombia. [21a]

4.57 Paediatrics in Colombia. The Colombia Society of Paediatricians (Sociedad Colombiana de Pediatria) is a well-established national organisation, currently gearing up to its 22nd annual conference in October 2001. [21b] The website includes a list of contacts for the Society, by Departmentos (regional departments.) [21c] Within Cali and Valle del Cauca, there are local charities and foundations assisting in the welfare of children with disabilities. Foe example, there is the Instituto para Ninos Ciegos y Sordos de Cali (the Institute for Blind and Deaf Children of Cali). [21m]

4.58 Gynaecological treatments including fertility treatments. El Centro Colombiano de Fertilidad y Esterilidad, CECOLFES, is a private organisation and clinic that assists with reproductive medicine and treatments. It has Bogota and Miami, US offices. [21k]

4.59 MRI and similar non-invasive scanning devices in Colombia. There is a department of nuclear medicine in the University of Cali Medical Faculty with equipment for non-invasive imaging. [21l] There are a number of suppliers in Colombia of medical imaging equipment, including two suppliers based in Cali. [21h] There are private laboratories for medical tests, such as Laboratio Clinico Medico Espinosa Gomez Ltda, for bodily fluid / solid tests. [21j]

4.60 Physiotherapy. The main professional body for physiotherapists is the Asociiacion Colombiana de Fisioterapia, with a regional office for the South West region based in Cali open between 8:30 am and 5:30 pm. [21e]

4.61 Ophthalmologists and eye healthcare. There is a national professional organisation (website unobtainable). Private ophthalmologists can offer a range of specialist services. [21n] Local charities in Cali offer children basic eye healthcare and remedial treatment. [21m]

4.62 Alternative medicine. There is an umbrella professional group for therapists, the Asociacion de medicos Investigadores en terapeuticas alternativas – AMIT (Association of Medical Researchers in Alternative Therapies). Under the documentation of a conference held in February 2001 at the Facultad de medicina de la Unversidad Nacional de Colombia, there were biography and contact notes for the main speeakers, showing a wide range of alternative therapies being investigated in Colombia. [21f]

4.63 Epilepsy. There is an active national epilepsy society, Liga Central Contra la Epilepsia – LICCE (United League Against Epilepsy). The group offers expert advice about diagnosis and where to get emergency and other treatment, with Bogota office contact details on its front page. [21d]

4.64 Pressure groups. The Movimiento por la Salud Publica en Colombia (the Movement for Public Health in Colombia) is a national pressure group that monitors health services, pressing for standards, reforms and improvements. [21i]

4.65 Cancer. From the website of the Federacion Latinoamericana de Sociedades de Cancerologia – Flasca (the Latin-American Federation of Associations Reseaching Cancer), there is a list of Colombian contacts including contacts in the Cali area. [21g]

4.66 People with Disabilities. Although the 1991 Constitution enumerates the fundamental social, economic and cultural rights of the physically disabled, disabled persons' full participation in society is prevented by serious practical impediments. Access for people with disabilities is not compulsory although one exception is that physically disabled people must receive assistance at voting stations. Another provision of the Constitution is that the social security fund for public employees must provide services for disabled children of its employees regardless of the cost. [3]

4.67 HIV/AIDS. The following pharmaceuticals for the treatment of HIV infection are included in the list of Essential Medicines and should therefore be available at a subsidised rate: [21o]

• Didanosine (Didanosina) tablet and capsule 25 & 100 mg
• Indinavir tablet and capsule 200 & 400 mg
• Lamivudine (Lamivudina) solution 10mg.ml and tablet and capsule 150 mg
• Zidovudine (Zidovudina) tablet or capsule 100mg, solution 10 mg/ml

In the northern district of Barranquilla, the humanitarian US foundation Francios-Xavier Bagnoud provides community support, social welfare and medical services to the children who have been diagnosed HIV positive. The FXB House was founded in 1995 by Dr Alejandro Haag. The House functions as a day-care centre and provides nutritional, educational, recreational and medical services to the children and their relatives. It has a pharmacy of antiretrovirals that are also available to private patients. [21p]

4.68 Psychological Treatment. The Centro Medico Imbanaco in Cali has three specialist consultants who offer psychological and psychiatric treatment. [21s] The university hospital San Vicente de Paul in Medellin too lists professionals in psychology as part of its support services. [21r] The Corporacion AVRE – apoyo a Victimas Pro-Recuperacion emocional (support for victims for emotional recovery) offers medical-psychiatric and psychological treatment to individuals, families and groups. [21q] AVARE has its headquarter in Bogota but it also operates in the departments of Cordoba, Sucre, and parts of Bolivar, Barrancabermeja. AVARE offers therapeutic workshops to the victims of violence, the displaced people and those working with human rights as well as general therapy. AVARE has also designed an Educational Programme for "the Therapists and Multipliers of Mental Health and Human Rights". By December 1999, groups of local entities had been trained and were operating in Barrancabermeja, Monteria and Sincelejo. [21q]

4.69 Asthma. The List of Essential Medicines contains the following generic pharmaceuticals for treatment and management of Asthma. [21o] This list is not exhaustive:

• Salbutamol, for injection, 0.5 mg /ml
•    aerosol inhalation, 100 mcg
•    nebuliser, 0.5%
• Terbutaline sulphate, tablet, 2,5 mg
•    Syrup, 1,5 mg / 5 ml (0,03%)
•    for injection, 0,5 mg / ml
•    nebuliser, 10 mg / ml (1%)
• Beclometasone dipropionate, liquid for inhalation, 50 mcg and 250 mcg
• Sodium Cromoglicate (Cromoglicato de sodio)
•    nasal solution, 20 mg /ml (2%) and 40 mg / ml (4%)
•    inhalation of solution, 5 mg

Hospital La Maria in Medellin has an Asthma Clinic and offers the patients specialist consultation, hospitalisation and observation. [21t] The following are some of the treatments available in La Maria: therapy to aid respiration, emergency treatment and oxygen therapy. A study by the Institute of Immunological Research at the University of Cartagena into Asthma mortality in Colombia has found that the rate of mortality among Asthma sufferers in Colombia is lower than in some other Latin American countries. It also found that metered dose inhaler beta-2-agonists are not widely used in Colombia, mainly because of their price. In contrast, oral corticosteroids, especially prednisolone are commonly used, even without a prescription. [21u] CIPU is aware that this study was published in 1998 and its information may not be current. The current price reference for Asthma pharmaceuticals in Colombia is not available to CIPU at present.

F. Education System

4.70 Education commences at nursery level for children. Primary education if free and compulsory for five years. Admission to secondary education is conditional upon successful completion of primary education and is for four years. Pupils may pursue a further two years of vocational training. In 1995, total enrolment at primary and secondary schools was equivalent to 85% and 50% of the school age population. [2b]

Key Social Issues

Drugs Trade

4.71 The drugs industry, which had taken root in Colombia with the marijuana boom of the 1970s, remains a problem. [11p] By the end of the 1970s the cocaine production overtook marijuana cultivation, and by 1984 it was estimated that Colombia's cocaine magnates had an annual income of between 10,000 and 12,000 million US dollars. [6b] The authorities arrested six prominent Cali cartel members during 1995. In February 1997 Congress approved legislation that would substantially increase the terms of imprisonment for drug traffickers and heads of criminal organisations. In November 1997 extradition legislation was adopted but it was not effective retroactively. [3d]

4.72 The cocaine industry has brought with it "..unprecedented violence and corruption" . [6b] Drugs cartels have been linked with right-wing paramilitary groups and have been implicated in a number of assassinations. [6b] "Narcoterrorism" and other drug related violence apparent in mainstream Colombian society seemed to have disappeared as the cartels have broken up, but incidents in November 1999 caused widespread concern. There was a car bomb attempt to assassinate a police chief in Bogota, on 11 November, at the same time as a car bomb in another part of Bogota killed six people and injured 43. [16bm, 16bo, 16bp] The latter bombing gained worldwide attention. It held to be a worrying return to the "narco-terrorism" of the 1980s, and as the cartels' response to recent drugs arrests and proposed extraditions. The official response was swift: extradition proceedings to the US for Jaime Lara, an alleged heroin trafficker were cleared on the day. There have no further related incidents, and fears of a resurgence of drug related violence have been unfounded. [16bo, 16bp] In June 2000, the Colombian Constitutional Court introduced further decisions that eased extraditions to the United States, with the allowance of the extradition of Orlando Garcia Cleves. [17dn] These reforms have assisted the US in its extradition proceedings against Fabio Ochoa in 2001. [11ca,11ce]

4.73 In 1999, the drugs trade has expanded to a degree that has alarmed both the Colombian and US governments. In 1999, Colombia exported 464 tons of cocaine. The trade is estimated to be worth $46 billion in 1999 . [17bl] Of the $46 billion, $3.5 billion was repatriated to Colombia, rivalling the $3.75 billion earned from exporting oil, and 2½ times the amount earned from coffee sales. [17bl] Other sources have put the earnings of the drugs trade at 2.3 percent of the gross GDP in 1998. [17ca] A glut in the supply of cocaine has fuelled the Colombian heroin industry, temporarily disrupted by the arrest of a key figure, Osvaldo Rico Delgado, who reportedly controlled the shipment of heroin to New York via the port of Arauca. [17af]

4.74 Of particular concern is the way the drugs industry has infiltrated the political process. Corruption of officials is a constant accusation within Colombia, and public sector corruption, estimated by the Colombian government, costs Colombia nearly US $4.4 billion each year . [17ai] The Attorney-General Edgardo Maya in March 2001 claimed that corruption was a greater problem than the guerrillas, and called for "administrative death" for corrupt officials. [18bh] The Colombian political system in March 2000 has been rocked by contracts scandals in the Congress, culminating in the resignation of the House Speaker. [17bl] The Canadian Immigration and Refugee Board have published a report of Colombian government measures regarding the drug trade, 1996-1998, including the tackling of involvement of officials, concluding that "narco-related corruption in all branches of the government continues to undermine counternarcotics effectiveness in Colombia". [20c] The rejection of $3 million bribe offered to police by a drug dealer at the moment of arrest, in December 1999, has been cited as an example of the police's integrity. [17d] In turn, the military in November 1999, through the Military Forces Commander, General Fernando Tapias, has charged rebel groups with active involvement in the drugs trade. This charge came after a Nicaraguan official admitted arms for drugs charges. [16bq] FARC rejects the accusation that it lives on drugs money. [17x] Raul Reyes of FARC has said that FARC is committed to eradicating drug crops in its areas of control in 3 to 5 years, claiming that FARC has nothing to do with drugs traffickers. [11u,20c] However, outside analysts have put income from drugs (for all the guerrilla organisations, dated 1996) at US $1.2 billion a year, as opposed to $300 million from extortion and kidnapping. This figure has been disputed with Colombian government sources putting total guerrilla income from all sources at US$ 1.16 billion in 1996. [20a] Evidence of guerrilla involvement in the drugs trade is overwhelming: one source reported a set of fees charged by guerrillas relating to drug trade protection [20a] Campesinos from Putumayo Department have reported that FARC controls the sale of coca base in that area, with active smuggling by coca growers of base to other buyers in areas outside FARC control. [11u] (see extortion, above) FARC has attempted to deflect criticism of its own involvement with the argument that the US ought to concentrate on home consumption of cocaine rather than Colombian production, and that peasant farmers are driven to produce coca as a cash crop rather than alternative cultivates by the US market. [17dp] To destroy crops, in FARC's rhetoric, would take "the food out of the peasants' mouths." [17dv] The Finance Minister, Juan Manual Santos, has argued that the US could assist by opening markets up to Colombian exports to assist in breaking coca production reliance. [18bc]

4.75 The growth outlined above, and a CIA-estimated future capacity to produce 520 metric tons of cocaine, has prompted the US to offer military aid in terms of hardware and training to the Colombian armed forces. The US aid deal is worth $1.5 billion over 3 years, and has hit a stalemate in the US Congress. Ostensibly, the money is to assist anti-drug programmes, but such a move has been criticised as being partial to the military, and thus by implication the paramilitaries [16d,16bn,16bs]. (see Security Forces – armed forces, above, and Human rights – Security forces, below) On 2 September 2001, further US military assistance to combat drug trafficking wa hinted at by US officials. [11bx]

4.76 the main areas of drug cultivation are the southern departments, particularly putuyamo department. a colombian army estimate of coca cultivation is between 75,000 and 100,000 hectares. most coca workers are campesinos, known as raspachinos ("scrapers"), harvesting the coca leaves to create coca base, further refined by "laboratories" into crystalline cocaine. [11u] in the meanwhile, anti-drug operations have been increased, such as extending to include night-time raids of coca plantations and laboratories in february 2000 . [17ar] substitution of illegal cultivates programmes have also begun in june 2000 under the auspices of the agriculture ministry. [17dk] two years' campaign of spraying drug crops in putumayo department has apparently led to an increase in such crops and an influx of 120,000 people to neighbouring narino, according to reports in the colombian press in august 2000. [17fj]

4.77 The National Police also have extended protection to human rights workers and trade unionists who denounce drug trafficking activities. Such protection has included for example in June 1999, CCTV, armoured doors, bodyguards, and personal protection measures for 8 labour leaders who had received death threats. [20g, 20h] Such protection has sometimes been inadequate through difficulties in coordinating resources. [20g] The Human resources Directorate of the Ministry of the Interior has also contributed to protection efforts. By mid-1999, thirty persons at risk were linked to the security forces by pager, with other pager schemes in the pipelines. Bulletproof vests, security personnel, and 17 vehicles were also provided to people at risk. [20r] The Colombian army claimed major achievements in the battle against drugs in January 2001 [11bf], with major pushes in Guainia and Vichada departments near the Brazilian border. [18ay] Likewise, there have been operations in Caqueta department, with allegations that US civilian personnel subcontracted to fly aerial fumigation helicopters have also been involved in clashes with guerrilla units. [11bh]

4.78 Medellin is still held to be a city dominated by gang related violence, a legacy of Pablo Escobar's encouragement of violent gangs known as sicario ("assassins"). In year 2000, there were almost 4,000 violent deaths in a city of two million. There is reportedly a large gang war in operation as La Terrraza, a notorious sicario gang is in a fight "to the death with its former paymaster, a feared right-wing paramilitary". [11be] The AUC claimed the murder of the leader and six gang members in August 2000. [3h]

Extortion

4.79 The guerrilla organisations are often quizzed as to their method of financing. One of the main documented methods is extortion. Colloquially known as la vacuna "the vaccine", it is also known as "protection" to FARC and "war tax" to ELN . [20a,20b] Foreign and large state companies such as the oil companies officially, on principle, do not pay protection money to guerrillas. They usually make their own security arrangements to supplement government protection. Some companies, particularly BP in 1997, have been criticised for the security firms that they have used, with allegations that there are links between such security outfits and the paramilitaries. [20b,4g]

4.80 FARC announced, in April 2000, a "peace tax", known as "law 002", on all businesses and multinationals with assets totalling more than $1 million, and has vowed to kidnap anyone worth more than $1 million if they do not "contribute". [3h] How an individual's worth is to be assessed or who much the "tax" is to be, has not been released by FARC. [17bo,17bq] The effect of the "tax" has been estimated possibly cost the country $750 million a year in debt servicing, with $250 lost through Colombia's credit risk perception deteriorating. [17cd] In application of "law 002", FARC blew up 64 head of cattle in September 2000 after farmers refused to pay the extortion. [17he] The FARC also announced another "law" on 3 June 2000, designed to halt administrative corruption. FARC will demand that those they hold responsible for misappropriation to pay a fine that will be calculated according to the sum and the gravity of the crime, as well as paying back the misappropriated sum in total. Impunity in corruption cases is held to be a "direct consequence of the mutual solidarity among the members of the politicking caste that governs the country." [17ct]

4.81 General extortion rackets have been uncovered, with blackmailers posing as guerrillas or paramilitaries. [11i] No reports could be found by the Canadian IRB in June 1999 of incidents where the victims of guerrilla extortion were perceived as guerrilla collaborators by virtue of paying the demands by the paramilitaries, the army or the police. [20l] The national prison service INPEC has reported in July 2000 that an extortion ring has been uncovered operating from within prisons. The leaders, both of paramilitary and rebel factions, used 105 mobile phones, 300 phone cards and telephone books to run the scheme from two prisons in the city of Ibague, netting an estimated $1 million. [17ev] In May 2000, the provincial and municipal government pension schemes were found to have been defrauded of 80 billion pesos, equivalent of tens of millions of US dollars by organised criminal gangs. [17cb]

Kidnapping

4.82 Colombia has been held recently (in September 2000) to have the highest incidence rate of kidnapping in the world. An estimated 2,000 people are taken for ransom each year. [11l] The extent of kidnapping is reflected in the types of kidnapping differentiated in the Colombian Penal Code: extortive kidnapping (secuestro extorsivo) in Article 268, simple kidnapping (secuestro simple) in Art. 269, punitive aggravating circumstances (circunstancias de agravacion punitiva) in Art. 270, and illegal confinement (constrenimiento ilegal) in Art. 276. The offences of torture (Art. 279) and hijacking of public transport (Art. 281) are also often directly applicable. Other offences including collusion to commit a crime (Art. 186); terrorism (Art.187); instigating a crime (Art. 188) and extortion (Art. 355) are often found to apply. [20s]

4.83 The National Police and a private organisation, the Free Country Foundation (Fundacion Pais Libre) separately promote safety awareness and precautionary measure for reducing the risk of being kidnapped. [20u] Since 1997, there have been reports on the growing business of "insurance against kidnapping": such insurance is not against the act of kidnapping, but can assist in a number of ways, including paying a ransom, and other aspects surrounding a typical kidnap. [20u] The National Police and Armed Forces operate joint anti-kidnapping teams. Created in 1996, the Unified Action Groups for Personal Liberty or GAULAs are in turn co-ordinated by the Anti-kidnapping and Anti-extortion Directorate. As of July 1999, nine urban areas had GAULAs; and 15 rural GAULAs were undergoing reorganisation and training. [20u]

4.84 The National Police will undertake proceedings if a kidnap is reported to them. However, a number of families of victims will not report and / or negotiate directly with the kidnappers. It is not illegal not to report a kidnapping. Likewise, legally, a family may pay a ransom to kidnappers if they so wish: a 1993 law penalising such a move was declared unconstitutional and never enforced. [20s][20y]

4.85 In January and February 2002, a total of 342 kidnappings were reported with the departments of Antioquia and Cundinamarca being the most effected. [10j] All guerrilla groups continued to engage in hostage-taking for extortion or to press a political point. Police reported 2,600 abductions in 1998, a 30% increase. About half of the incidents were blamed on the guerrillas (FARC and ELN) and between a third and a half on common criminals. In June 1999, 50,000 Colombians marched in Bogota to protest against the rising tide of kidnappings. In July 1999, at least 1,200 people were reportedly being held by the rebels awaiting ransom. [15w] By the end of 1999, 2,945 cases were reported in total, as opposed to the 1998 figure of 2,216, an increase of 30% again. Pais Libre attributed 1,985 to financial extortion, and 372 as being for political purposes. 728 attributed to FARC, 695 to ELN, 167 to EPL, 55 to other guerrillas, 300 to common criminals, 6 to family members of the victim, and 891 to unidentified kidnappers. [3e] For the period January to June 2000, out of a total of 1,750 people kidnapped, the Free Country Foundation (Fundacion Pais Libre) holds FARC to be responsible for 477 people and the ELN, 381 people kidnapped. [11ad] By Februray 2001, police figures corroborated by FPL registered 3,706 kidnappings in year 2000, an increase of about 18 percent on the 1999 figure; 280 linked to paramilitaries, 2,104 to the guerrillas, 371 by common criminals, and 944 to persons unknown. [3h]

4.87 Protest at kidnapping in general was a key protest issue in the No Mas (No More) marches of 24 October 1999, attracting over 5 million people. [16am,16an] Similar protests, but attracting less support, were held on 10 September 2000, ahead of the full implementation of Plan Colombia. They involved over 2000 civic groups, and the main march was attended by Horacio Serpa, the Liberal party leader, and Navarro Wolff, the former M-19 rebel group leader. [11o] The latest protests may have been fuelled by two events that horrified the nation: the use of a "necklace bomb" in a botched extortion attempt [17cg,17ci,17ck] and the death of six children caught in crossfire [17fx,17gl]

4.88 Abduction is used for political purposes and gestures. The ELN in particular has used spectacular kidnaps. On 21 April 1999, ELN commandos hijacked a commercial airliner and kidnapped its 41 passengers and crew, all have been released by the end of 2000, though one victim died from the want of medical treatment. [3h] On 30 May, ELN fighters abducted more than 140 people from a church in Cali. [15q] The practice has continued throughout year 2000, with a mass kidnap of 40 tourists between Beuna Ventura and Cali on the 17 September 2000. The Free Country Foundation, has claimed the ELN to be responsible for 381 kidnappings in the period January to June 2000. [11ad]

4.89 A practice developed by the ELN in particular is that of pesca milagrosa ("bountiful catch" or "good fishing") whereby a roadblock is set up on a highway, and the kidnappers choose their victims from the resulting build-up of traffic. [20s] Also in May, Amnesty International reported the abduction in Medellin of Piedad Cordoba de Castro, Liberal Party Senator and president of the Senate's Human Rights Commission (later released unharmed). Carlos Castano, leader of the United Self-Defence Forces, claimed responsibility for the abduction and demanded that AUC be granted political recognition and a direct role in the forthcoming peace talks. [4f]

4.90 Reports of April 1999 indicate that the kidnapping industry is "growing in sophistication": "small-time kidnappers have begun to free-lance, selling their captives to larger, better-funded groups, often guerrillas, with the ability to extort larger ransoms". [20s] Conversely, guerrilla groups will sub-contract the task of kidnapping to common criminal groups. These groups are sometimes known as "para-guerrilla " (grupo paraguerrillero) [20s,20x,3h]

4.91 Increasingly, children are being targeted for kidnap for ransom. By the end of 2000, an estimated 164 minors were held as kidnap victims, Pais Libre having recorded 126 children kidnapped in the period January to June 2000. [3h,11r] The case of a five-year-old boy attracted media attention between July and October 2000. The child was rescued by an anti-kidnapping squad in mid-October, and seven members of FARC arrested. [11aj,17ix] 48 children were rescued by the end of 2000. [3h] The army reported in September 2001, 213 minors kidnapped in the period January to August 2001. [18dd]

4.92 FARC has denied that it uses the DMZ as a base for holding kidnap victims. [17dx,17ea] It does however hold captured members of the security forces, and in October 2000, released video footage of over 250 prisoners, of an estimated total of 400 such prisoners captured over the past three years. Prisoner swaps are often brought up by FARC at the negotiating table, but refused as an issue by the government. The government has put forward the idea of an "amnesty" for FARC members in turn for releases of the captured security personnel. [11ah,11ak, 17hy,17ir] The Army alleges that FARC has been moving all sorts of prisoners into the DMZ. [17hm] Questions of the DMZ as a kidnap victim holding zone again emerged in September 2001. [11cg,18dj]

4.93 The paramilitaries are also known to kidnap for bargaining purposes. On 23 June 2000, the AUC released Guillermo Leon Valencia Cosso, the brother of one of the government's chief negotiators in the FARC / government peace talks. Held for two days, he was released as "a gesture of the AUC's willingness to work for peace". Castano of the AUC had ordered the kidnapping because of the alleged "accommodating" attitude of Fabio Valencia Cossio, the negotiator, in insisting that military authorities did not label FARC as "narcotraffickers". [17dm] The AUC mainly abduct with a view to executing the abducted, as in the case of 13 October 2000 near Medellin. [3h,11am,11an, 17iz]

4.94 Foreign workers are attractive to kidnappers on the expectation that a foreign multinational can be charged a higher ransom fee. [3h] Oil workers have allegedly been kidnapped by Colombian guerrillas in Ecuador and flown over to Colombia for "safe-keeping". [11al] In September 2000, the kidnapping of a Russian and a Lithuanian, employed as oil engineers, led to national media attention, with the focus on whether FARC was holding the abducted in the DMZ. [17hg] The oil industry has been further hit with the kidnapping of 92 Occidental Petroleum Corp on 16 April 2001, later released at the end of April. [18bs,11bv]

5A. HUMAN RIGHTS: GENERAL ASSESSMENT

i) An Overview

A.1 According to the U.S. State Department, the Colombian Government's human rights record remained poor for the year 2001. [3i] Government security forces continued to commit serious abuses, including extra-judicial killings. [3i,9e,9f] Impunity remained a problem. The authorities rarely brought high-ranking officers of the security forces and the police charged with human right abuses or collaboration with the paramilitaries to justice. [3i, 9e]

A.2 The Government continued efforts to improve the legal framework and institutional mechanisms, but implementation lagged, and serious problems remained in many areas. [3i] The constitution and criminal law explicitly prohibits torture, as well as cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment; however there were reports of police and military torture and mistreatment. [3i, 9f] In May 2000, Congress passed legislation that criminalized genocide, torture, and forced displacement by including them in the criminal code. [3i] The reformed Military Penal Code, which came into effect in August 2000, directed that trials of those members of the military and police accused of torture be held in civilian, rather than military, courts. [3i] The Inspector General's office received 29 complaints of torture by state agents during the year 2001, compared with 101 during 2000. [3i] The Constitution specifically prohibits discrimination based on race, sex, religion, disability, language, or social status. In practice, however, many of these provisions are not enforced.

A.3 The US State Department has reported instances of "social cleansing" committed by the security forces and the paramilitaries in 2001. An undetermined number of off-duty policemen committed "social cleansing" killings, or that the police delibrately failed to prevent such killings. [3i] Similarly, "social cleansing" killings of homosexuals, prostitutes, drug users, and mentally ill persons were reported in Barrancabermeja, Cucuta, and numerous other municipalities. [3i] The Report for 2000 also mentions "social cleansing" with estimates given between 279 [NIFM] (for the first six months of 1999) to 182 [CINEP] (for the first nine months of 1999). According to the National Institute for Forensic Medicine, such killings occurred with greatest frequency in Bogota and the departments of Magdalena and Antioquia. Most of these incidents were attributed in 1997 to police or paramilitary groups; modified to unknown social cleansing groups in 1999. [12f,3e]

A.4 The statistics of murder in Colombia in 2000 have made Colombia's murder rate one of the highest in Latin America, with police figures (DIJIN) for 2000 showing a total of 25,660 murders, as opposed to 24,081 in 1999, and 23,096 in 1998. This continues a jump after a decade of year-on-year decrease in the murder rate. [3h] In the first ten months of the year 2001, the office of Public Advocate recorded 92 massacres, which they defined as the killing of three or more people at the same time and the same place. Most were linked to paramilitary groups working with the tolerance or support of the security forces. [9f] For the year 2000, the Colombian government issued conflicting official statistics for massacres. According to the Office of the Human Rights Ombudsman, in the period January-June, 235 massacres resulting in 1,073 deaths occurred. The statistics for 1999 reported 1,863 fatalities. This reflected a rise of 40% on 1998. [3h]

A.5 A Government report released on 4 February 2001 blamed 80 percent of reported human rights abuses on the guerrilla forces, killing 1,074 civilians and kidnapping 1,625 others in year 2000. They staged 783 "acts of terrorism". [18ag] Antioquia is the department most affected, and the AUC held to be the main perpetrators. [17dh] (for January to May 2000 figures ), [17gw] An army report of July 2000 states that 168 towns, (147 settlements according to the Vice-President's Office) have been attacked by guerrillas in the previous 18 months, and that they had planted landmines that have killed 253 and injured 812 people to July 2000. [17ed] Violence and instability in rural areas displaced 288,000 people in 1999 (as opposed to 308,000 in 1998) according to CODHES figures. [3d] The official government figures for year 2000 break down the murders by type, attributing 30 percent to common criminal activity, 25 percent to organised crime, 25 percent to the equivalent of bar room fights, and 13 percent to guerrilla subversion. [17gl]

ii) Paramilitary, Guerrilla and other groups (See Annex B, section 4 for group details)

FARC

A.6 Following the collapse of the peace process in February 2002, the Colombian armed forces have reoccupied the demilitarized zone, previously under the FARC command. As the Colombian army advanced through the DMZ, estimated 5000 rebel fighters retreated through the zone's 42000 sq. km of dense tropical jungle and mountain passes. [22y] By 2 March 2002 the Colombian armed forces were declaring that the first phase of Operation Tanatos (after the Greek word for death) had been completed successfully. This involved occupation of the five major towns in what used to be the DMZ granted to the FARC guerrillas in 1998. [22z] As the army reestablished the government control of the rebel sanctuary, thousands of FARC guerrillas left the large towns of the region and dispersed in hiding places across the country, in jungles and villages. The guerrillas have also abandoned the camouflage and now dress in civilian attire. [22ap]

A.7 With the end of the three-year peace process and the remilitarization of the DMZ, the FARC have changed their tactics. [11ct] The movement has ended the previous tactic of targeting police stations or massing various "fronts" against isolated security force bases. [11ct] The FARC now target Colombia's infrastructure, the economy and the urban centres. [11ct, 22g] The guerrilla leader Rommana is reported to have ordered "Bring them all down: the bridges, pylons and the dam, make urban attacks, so that the oligarchy feels the war." The new guerrilla tactic is to break down into small groups and attack new targets including the electricity network, oil pipelines and water supplies. [11ct]

A.8 Attacks on the infrastructure began before the collapse of the peace process and possibly contributed to it. On 20 January 2002 the FARC guerrillas attacked one of the exit valves of the Chingaza dam, which provides most of Bogota's drinking water. [22h] According to reports by the Colombian press the FARC dynamited 38 electricity towers in January-February 2002, and 28 municipalities faced power rationing. [22m] In just two months the rebels have dealt serious blows to the electricity network, bringing down more than 150 pylons. [11ct] The guerrillas now dressed as civilians are exploding car bombs in towns and chipping away at the national power grid with steady attacks on remote electrical towers. [22ap] The FARC claim that this is part of a developing strategy to make the war felt more acutely in the cities. [22ap][11ct]

A.9 Previously urban networks of the FARC had focused mainly on revenue-raising, through extortion, kidnapping and intelligence gathering. But on 25 January 2002 as the peace process neared an irretrievable end, a bomb attached to a bicycle went off outside a restaurant killing four policemen and a child. [11ct] On 31 March 2002, the rebels also blew up three bridges, cutting off the Caribbean region from the country's central region. The FARC are also held responsible for destruction of four other bridges this week including one in the province of Narino, along Ecuador's border. [22ar] Elsewhere, the guerrillas have occupied a pumping station at a reservoir in Colombia's Southern Andes, cutting the water supply to more than 500,000 people. [22al]

A.10 With the demilitarized zone no more, the FARC have intensified their campaigns in bases in the regions bordering Venezuela and Ecuador. [22aq][ 22an] In recent weeks, the fighting between the Colombian armed forces and the FARC has intensified near the border with Venezuela. Amid denials by the Venezuelan government, the Colombian government claims it has proof that the FARC have established a base in Venezuela and that they launch offensives against the Colombian armed forces from inside the border. [22am][ 22al][ 22an] According to a Colombian army officer, the FARC have established a base of 150 men inside Venezuela, one kilometre from the international border. [22am, 22ak] On 22 March 2002, the death toll stood at 38 soldiers and guerrillas killed in heavy fighting near the border with Venezuela. [22al]

A.11 On 29 March 2002, the Colombian army destroyed a cocaine production compound with 31 laboratories belonging to the FARC near Puerto Asis, in the Putumayo province, near the border with Ecuador. The army also discovered a FARC hospital and camp in the town of Guamuez, also in Putumayo. [22aq, 22as] The FARC are accused of commiting killings and targeting noncombatants in a manner similar to that of paramilitary groups. [3i] According to the US State Department report on Colombia for 2001, common guerrilla targets included local elected officials and candidates for public office, teachers, civic leaders, business owners, and peasants opposed to the guerrillas political or military activities. [3i] On 18 January 2001, guerrillas of the FARC's 57th front shot and killed Henry Perea Torres, the mayor of Jurado in Choco department. Mr Torres, who represented the indegenous Social Alliance, had criticized the recent murder of a fellow indigenous leader Armando Achita. [3i] The same source reports that on 6-7 September 2001 the FARC guerrillas killed 10 coca leaf pickers. Forty other persons were also reported dead. The attack appeared to be an attempt by the FARC to regain control of the area around La Gabarra which had been seized by the paramilitaries. This area remains hotly contested between illegal armed groups, both for coca cultivation and for access to the Venezuelan border. [3i]

A.12 In the aftermath of the collapse of the peace process, the FARC have been named as possible suspects in the kidnap of the presidential candidate Senator Betancourt on 23 February 2002 and the murder of Archbishop Monsignor Isaias Duarte Cancino, archbishop of Cali, in March 2002. [9g, 22af] The FARC leader Pablo Catatumbo has denied any FARC involvement in the killing of the archbishop and has told Cali radio stations "We've had our differences with Duarte, but FARC does not commit ...... political assasinations". [22ag]

The FARC Organisation

A.13 In the US State Department Report for 1999, active fighters for all the guerrilla movements total about 11,000 to 17,000, figures repeated in the year 2000 report. [3e][3h] In some sources, FARC membership is now given as between 17,000 and 20,000 active members [16bg][23f][ 28b] A Colombian army report of February 2001 puts the number at 21,000 rebels in total, 16,492 in FARC and 4,500 in the ELN. [18aj] Most sources agree that FARC is made up of cadres known as fronts, with the number of fronts (in 1996) in the main estimated at 60, with one source going as high as 100, comprising 10,000 fighters at arms (1996) [3e,20f] Reports in 2001 tend towards a figure of 120 fronts in total across all the guerrilla groups. [3h,18aj] An example of such a front is "24 de Julio" set up in Norte de Santander, purportedly, in response to AUC atrocities on 23 May1999 in the area. [16aa]

A.14 One source described FARC fronts as being highly autonomous and self-financing, with the large rural fronts as mobile units protecting commanders and carrying out the main attacks, and the smaller urban units "carry out smaller actions that 'contribute to blur the distinction between political and criminal violence'". [20f] Further information on guerrilla financing above at Extortion, 4.29 Kidnapping 4.31, and The Drugs Trade, 4.21.

A.15 One source has reported FARC deserters claiming that foreign trainers have been used by FARC in their military training camps. The nationalities of the trainers were not revealed. The deserters had given themselves up to the army recently because of "mistreatment" by their FARC commanders . [17am] With the capture of three members of the Irish Republican Army, an UK banned organisation, by Colombian police in August 2001, speculation about international terrorist networks have been prominent in newswire reports. [18da,18db,18dh]

A.16 The Colombian Institute for Family welfare has estimated (in February 2000) that there are around 3,000 minors still active in Colombia's insurgent organisations, with 2,000 under arms . [17ah] The army has estimated 4,000 minors involved [17w] The head of FARC, Manuel Marulanda, has stated that FARC will continue to recruit minors over the age of 15 years. [17w]

A.17 In 1996, FARC was known to have an urban support network known as Milicias Bolivarianas, estimated to number 1,200 members, and reaching into the Bogota barrios, set up in 1987. [20f] Other reports talk of urban militias (milicias urbanas) as groups of un-uniformed guerrillas operating from or within a city. [20t] A 1999 report on urban militias has reasoned that these groups have ceased being just purely logistical support groups, but have increasingly become self-financing, militarily semi-autonomous groups present in many of the major cities. Also referred to as "urban cells" (celulas urbanas), they blend in with the local inhabitants who in turn do not identify them for fear of reprisal. [20t] In September 2001, army intelligence sources revealed that the FARC were developing a new tactic using "mobile fronts" involving 1,500 armed insurgents. The tactic principally involves the rapid movement of guerrillas to overwhelm vunerable government institutions. [18dc]

A.18 A July 2000 National Police report claimed that the secretariat of FARC had lost control over its guerrilla fronts. [17el] On 2 August 2001, it was reported that two FARC commanders of the 25th front were held by FARC to be 'renegade' and were under guard. The commanders had been leading a patrol that beheaded and burnt the bodies of an Irish teenager and companion in the summer of 2000. [18cv]

A.19 The Colombian government forces, through the National Planning and Inter-Institutional Committee to Struggle Against the Finances of Subversion, have estimated that FARC received 352.161 billion pesos from drug trafficking, extortion and kidnapping in 1999. Between 1991 and 1998, the combined income of ELN and FARC was held to be 5,670 trillion pesos ($3.4 billion). [17bq] In April 2001, FARC was publically linked with a Brazilian drugs baron, Luis Fernando Da Costa. [11bw]

A.20 One of the major points of friction throughout the peace talks was over FARC's status as a "belligerent" organisation. "Belligerence" is seen as an important concept. If accepted, as FARC wishes, then the rebels (with FARC as leading organisation) represents the "true" opposition to a "corrupt" political system . [16al] Otherwise, as the government wishes, the rebels are beyond the political process, and effectively criminal organisations. The issue of belligerent status was most recently raised in a proposal by the former president Alfonso Lopez Michelsen in October 1999. [8d] The High Peace Commissioner, Victor G Ricardo, immediately rejected any notion of belligerency being applicable. [16ak] In May 2000, the FARC continued to press, claiming that they were not asking for recognition of this status but had already "won (it) in combat". When asked to about territorial control, FARC answered that they controlled "All of Colombia. This is not a matter of having a territory where the government's military forces do not enter, but of maintaining our presence in an area for a certain amount of time." [17cq] According to a recent academic analysis by Safford and Palacios, the guerrillas do not have a national political plan. Rather, they are notable for their localism and the tendency to banditry. Once groups of altruistic peasants and university students seeking to accellerate social change, the present guerrillas now are a prosperous military enterprise with paid combatants. [6d]

A.21 FARC has been accused of using cruel and unusual weapons, mainly directed at civilians, namely the use of gas cylinder bombs. [3h] FARC has issued contradictory messages on the issue: on 12 February, Jorge Briceno / Mono Jojoy said that FARC regretted the use of gas cylinder bombs, and would "use these cylinders only against the armed forces" [18am] contrasted with the breaking of the pledge 11 days later in San Antonio, south Tolima [18aw] and the threat of their use by FARC around Barrancabermeja in March 2001. [18bj] Likewise, the Colombian army has found in February 2001 the deployment of a new type of "radio" bomb, a system for detonating bombs by remotely and without time limits by linking to FM or AM radio signals and pre-recorded channels with a specific volume. [18aq]

Demilitarized Zone around San Vicente del Caguan, 2002

A.22 The collapse of the peace process prompted President Pastrana to end the demilitarised zone on 20 February 2002. President Pastrana announced his decision to end the demilitarised zone beginning at midnight, 20-21 Feb, and authorised the Colombian army to retake the zone. He also declared his intention to reissue arrest warrants for the FARC leaders and to annul the group's political status. [11cs]

A.23 The FARC's use of the demilitarised zone (DMZ), which the government granted them in 1998, as a base for their guerrilla activities has been a major contributory factor in the collapse of the peace process. The rebels reportedly turned the area into a military camp, training new cadres and recruiting minors, importing arms and exporting drugs according to reports by human rights groups and the Colombian security. [11ck][11cn]

A.24 As the Colombian army advanced through the DMZ, estimated 5000 rebel fighters retreated through the zone's 42000 sq. km of dense tropical jungle and mountain passes. [22y] By 2 March the Colombian armed forces were declaring that the first phase of Operation Tanatos (after the Greek word for death) has been completed successfully. This involved occupation of the five major towns in what used to be the DMZ granted to the FARC guerrillas. [22z]

A.25 In preparation for the second phase – pursuing the guerrillas into the jungles and hills – the government has placed under military control 19 municipalities in the southern departments of Meta, Tolima, Cundinamarca, Hila, Caqueta and Guaviare. [22z] Civilian authorities will continue to run the day-to-day administration while the army will take over the security and public order matters. Fear and tension reigns in the DMZ as it has become rapidly remilitarized. [22y] An estimated population of 90,000 in the DMZ has largely been sheltered by a heavy guerrilla presence since 1998. The residents now fear that with the collapse of the peace talks and the FARC's withdrawal from the area the paramilitaries allied with the army will move in. The residents fear that "the paramilitaries will go on a murderous rampage" as they have done in the town of Puerto Rico. [22b] Isolated farmsteads fly white flags in an attempt to avoid visits from marauding bands of guerrillas or rightwing paramilitaries. [22y]

A.26 It is reported that Carlos Castanos, the leader of the AUC, has 3000 men positioned around the zone. He vowed to 'respect civilians', but the AUC has built up a reputation over the years for savage retribution killings. [22x] Violence and assassinations have escalated in Puerto Rico and towns on the outskirts of the so-called DMZ in southern Colombia in recent months. These towns have been infiltrated by the privately financed paramilitary forces "who are itching to enter the rebel dominion". [22a] Since July 2001 at least five mayors and other officials in towns just outside the zone have been killed [22a].

The Demilitarized Zone 1998-2001

A.27 The demilitarised zone was set up in November 1998, around San Vicente del Caguan, when the area was effectively given over to FARC control. [16x,16ba]

During this period, there were persistent accusations that the FARC had been abusing the demilitarisation zone. There were reports of killing, rape, alleged cases of forced disappearance, arbitrary detention, denial of free speech and fair trials, forced political indoctrination, and the forced recruitment of children. Two priests left the area under pressure. [3e] At other times, through other spokesmen, FARC claimed that the DMZ was being used for the purposes of meeting with the Government. [17eu]

A.28 The DMZ had great publicity value for the FARC. It was from the beginning a meeting place between journalists and the FARC. It helped deliver a number of key messages: that members are young, keen, idealistic and not coerced into active service [5a,5b]; that life was relatively peaceable under FARC control – with emphasis upon community patrolling and the disciplined lifestyle of the FARC members [5a,5b,17ey]; and that popular support for the cause abound. [5b]

A.29 The Colombian Catholic Church proposed international verification of FARC's involvement in the DMZ, claiming kidnap victims were being held in the DMZ. The bishops also claimed many stolen vehicles were taken to the DMZ. [17dx] FARC has denied that the DMZ was a hostage repository, and dismissed the proposal of international verification. [17dx,17dy,17ea] The Human Rights Ombudsman Jose Fernando Castro criticised FARC for being obstructive in monitoring human rights within the DMZ, with FARC branding the Office "an enemy of peace". [17eo] Castro further condemned the disappearances of seven people including a baby within the zone. [17ex] Questions of the DMZ as a kidnap victim holding zone again emerged in September 2001. [11cg,18dj]

A.30 A police report concluded in July 2000, that FARC were aiming to expand the DMZ through military action. FARC launched 45 actions within 24 outlying municipalities, forcing the National Police to withdraw permanently from 10 towns. The report claimed the rebels were working towards "liberating" a corridor between the DMZ, via Huila, Tolima, along the Cauca and Valle borders, to the sea, to facilitate drug and arms trafficking. [17ek]

A.31 FARC stated publicly that all people between 13 and 60 in the zone were liable for military service for the guerrillas. [3e] Orders were issued to various commanders to increase the number of squads throughout the country at all costs in order to combat Plan Colombia, including within the DMZ. [17eu] Sources also reported that FARC was widening its recruitment base to all available campesinos and indigenous peoples in Putumayo and Caqueta Departments. [17fw] Families fleeing the DMZ have reported that they were asked to surrender children to FARC upon their fourteenth birthday. [3h]

A.32 The FARC introduced its own justice system by introduction of the Office of Grievances and Complaints. The Office dealt with 50 to 100 cases a day, mainly dealing with land disputes or separation of assets, collecting debts and resolving murders. Local residents interviewed visiting the Office have claimed that the local murder rate plunged since FARC's involvement in local peace-keeping. [17ey]

A.33 In the wake of murders in the DMZ, the civil authorities and FARC agreed on 9 June 2000 to increase patrols together, to examine documentation of all vehicles entering the DMZ , and asked the community to respect the need for greater security measures in the DMZ. [17cz]

A.34 The army claimed that most of the FARC key commanders were based in the DMZ, hence relatively few arrests of FARC commanders were made in 2000; that 34 commanders had been captured outside the DMZ previously. [17bx] One commander, Adan Izquierdo, died "accidentally" when he "shot himself while cleaning his rifle" in late August, in the DMZ, according to FARC. [17gq]

A.35 The deadline of the DMZ was originally set for the 7June 2000. On the 6 June 2000, the High Peace Commissioner Camilo Gomez announced that the government had not yet decided to extend, but that an extension was likely. The commissioner believed that the zone had positively advanced dialogue with FARC. [17cu] It was duly extended. [17cx] On 2 August 2000, the Commissioner again defended the DMZ as a valuable meeting place. [17fe] The government insisted on 29 August 2000 that it was still "in control" of the DMZ – "The national constitution continued to be upheld in the DMZ. Mayors and councillors continued to function as did the Colombian law and the constitution." [17gv] The political argument for the retention of the DMZ continued throughout 2001, with President Pastrana stating on 5 September 2001, that there would be all-out war if he did not renew the DMZ in October 2001. [18df] Drug gang arrests in November 2000 led to renewed allegations that FARC is actively involved in drug trafficking. The Mexican authorities on 3 December announced that they had arrested Dr Carlos Ariel Charry Guzman, an alleged go-between in drugs and arms shipments between Mexican drugs gangs and FARC. [11ay]

ELN

(See Annex A, section 4 for group details)

A.36 In contrast to the collapse of the peace process between the FARC and the Colombian government, the peace talks between ELN and the Colombian government have continued. On 14 November 2001, ELN and President Pastrana's government agreed in principle to resume the peace talks. [22q] By 20 April 2002, ELN and government delegates had completed five rounds of talks in Havana, Cuba, in an effort to sign a truce. [22bb] Both parties are currently negotiating a six- month truce. [22bc]

A.37 The High Commissioner for Peace Gomez Alzate, who leads the government delegation, has stated that some points of agreement have been reached but there remain marked differences between the two sides. [22bb] Gomez acknowledged that verification and location of guerrillas during any future truce were matters on which the parties had not yet reached an agreement. [22ba] Gomez confirmed the pact includes an ELN promise to release all the hostages it has kidnapped – which the government says could be between 200 and 400 people – without ransom, and to cease all actions affecting the civilian population, for example, taking of captives.

A.38 It must also establish mechanisms that would permit the rebels to subsist during the six months suggested for the truce. [22ba] According to Gomez, the participation of the international community and Colombia's private sector in aiding the rebels during the truce is one of the possibilities being discussed. The government may also commit to social investments in regions under ELN influence. [22ba] Singnificantly, in these negotiations ELN has abandoned its historical demand to be granted a demilitarized zone similar to that which the FARC commanded until 20 Feruary 2002. [18cn]

A.39 Despite the peace efforts outlined above, ELN has continued its armed action against both civilian and non-civilian targets. On 3 March 2002, 60 AUC paramilitaries were killed during a joint campaign between the FARC and ELN in the mountains near the towns of Dagua and Timba. [22ac] ON 21 March 2002, ELN "declared to be a military target any person or element that tends to support the presidential candidacy of Alvaro Uribe". As a result, from that date the regional radio stations are prohibited from transmitting messages that refer to that campaign. [22az] On 21 April 2002, ELN guerrillas kidnapped at least six people at a roadblock they had set up between the towns of Timbio and Rosas in the province of Cauca. Those kidnapped included the Mayor of Rosas and five peasants. [22bc]

ELN in Barrancabermeja

A.40 Reports of August 2000 indicated that inter-rebel co-operation is very localised, and that there are often conflicts between the different movements. In early August 2000, the area around Barrancabermeja, Santander Department was caught up in an intensified battle for control. [17fh] Barrancabermeja is situated at the centre of the Colombian oil industry, in a wide valley of prime coca land and other natural resources, and also in a remote, relatively inaccessible part of the country. [3d,14m,11s] The town has been a battleground between the guerrilla and paramilitary groups who vie with each other for its control.

A.41 CREDHOS, the regional human rights organisation, claims there is a high level of impunity, with only 10 out of 300 murder cases proceeding to trial this year. Barrancabermeja combat is typified by "sicarios" (killers for hire) contracted by paramilitaries and guerrillas to assassinate suspected enemies. The pattern of co-opting criminal gangs is repeated in other urban areas. . [17fn] However, many of those killed are ordinary citizens. The city, total population of 250,000, is further divided as 18,000 of the population of the city live in guerrilla-controlled "comunas", such as the slum district of Maria Eugenia, on the outskirts. The residents of these areas risk being labelled as a "sapo" (frog) or informer if they cooperate with the authorities. [11s] The comunas are out of the reach of the police and the armed forces, except in exceptional shows of force. Further, the population discredits the government forces after the 1993-1994 massacres [3d] and the paramilitary atrocity of 30 murdered in 1998 [14m] The comunas are patrolled by the milicianos, guerrilla based plain-clothes militias. [11s] Some of the milicianos are FARC based, others ELN based and the EPL also has its own areas and patrols. In the clashing of these patrols circa 1 August, the ELN / EPL claim FARC killed 8 ELN rebels and captured 32 others. [17fh]

A.42 The level of violence increased in Barrancabermeja in 2001. 50 murders were recorded in the city in January alone. [11az,18k] The city is currently a battleground between the ELN and the paramilitary umbrella group, the AUC, since the AUC lead a campaign in the summer of year 2000 to clear the comunas. Two dominant figures have emerged, Commandante Julian, the AUC's second-in-command, and Commandante Jorge, of the ELN urban network. The prime AUC tactic has been to buy guerrillas over to their side. [11az] The government deployed a unit of urban special forces into the city. [11az,18c] The local populace, led by the city mayor, disagreed with police and military measures to restore public order, arguing for more social investment rather than increased security forces' presence. [18e]

A.43 The city is all the more strategically important for the ELN, and so correspondingly for their opponents. Likewise members of human rights organisations such as Peace Brigades International (PBI) and the Popular Women's Organisation (OFP) claimed to have been targeted by paramilitaries in Barrancabermeja in February 2001.The paramilitaries accuse such organisations of being guerrilla front organisations. Representatives of these organisations state that in situations such as Barrancabermeja, no organisation is recognised by the warring factions as neutral. [18ak]

A.44 In March 2001, in the area of Barrancabermeja, FARC declared that it intended to wage a "very intense" war against paramilitary groups in conjunction with the ELN. The new FARC tactic of using domestic gas canisters will be deployed "if the public force continues to shamelessly support paramilitary groups" with FARC and ELN "completely united with regard to this issue". [18bj] On 6 January 2001, it was reported that the ELN had threatened the forcible displacement of 11000 campesinos along the Bogota-Medellin road, apparently in retaliation for a similar threat by the AUC. [18b]

EPL

(See Annex B, section 4 for group details)

A.45 Luis Alberto Barrios, alias "Caliche", second in command of the EPL was arrested on 20 January 2000. The EPL is the smallest of the guerrilla organisations with no more than 500 members in 1999. [17u,11j] Indications are that the EPL may no longer be operating as a separate organisation. One of the key figures of the AUC had roots in the EPL up and until the early 1990s. [8c]

The Paramilitaries

(See Annex B, section 4 for group details)

A.46 In 2001, paramilitary groups continued to commit extrajudicial killings in areas where they competed with guerrilla forces for control, and often in the absence of a strong government security force in presence. [3i] Several paramilitary campaigns during the year included massacres in Sucre, Notre de Santander, Magdalena, and Valle del Cauca departments. [3i]

A.47 The office of the Human Rights Ombudsman received complaints regarding 125 massacres during the year. [3i] The MOD reported that paramilitary forces were responsible for the deaths of 1,015 civilians in the period from January to November 2001. The CCJ reported 161 massacres during January-September, of which 102 massacres (representing 671 victims) are attributed to paramilitaries. [3i] The CCJ attributes a total of 1,929 political killings and 319 social cleansing killings to paramilitary groups in the period from June 2000 to June 2001. [3i]

A.48 Paramilitary activities also included kidnapping, intimidation and forced displacement of people not directly involved. Paramilitary groups targeted journalists, teachers, human rights activists, labour leaders, community activists, national and local politicians (including the President), peasants, and other persons whom they accused of supporting or failing to confront guerrillas. Paramilitary forces killed indigenous people. [3i]

A.49 AUC paramilitary groups were suspected of hundreds of selective killings throughout the country, especially in Valle del Cauca, Antioquia, Norte de Santander, Bolivar, and Sucre departments. [3i] The FARC and ELN or both have a strong presence in these areas as paramilitary forces vied with them for control of territory or resources, including coca. [3i]

A.50 On 5 January 2001, presumed paramilitaries killed 14 persons in the villages of Chiquinquira and Mesetas, Penol municipality, Antioquia department. On 13 February 2001, gunmen shot and killed Ivan Villamizar, a former regional ombudsman, in Cucuta, Santander department. One presumed paramilitary was captured and charged with the murder. [3i]

A.51 On 24 March 2001, paramilitaries reportedly kidnapped between 24 and 30 persons in La Llorente, Narino department. From January to April 2001, AUC mounted a successful offensive to displace the ELN from the north-western neighbourhoods of Barrancabermeja, Santander department. By April 2001, more than 180 civilians had been killed and another 4000 displaced. [3i] On 5 September 2001, presumed AUC paramilitary gunmen killed Congressman and Lower House Peace Committee Acting Chairman Jairo Hernando Rojas. The Prosecutor General's Human Rights Unit was investigating the case. [3i] On 20 March 2002, two farmers and a bank employee were reported killed in the crossfire between the FARC and AUC in the municipality of La Union, located 60 Kilometres from Medellin, the capital of Antioquia. [22ai]

A.52 According to the report by the Human Right Watch in 2002, there has been some advances on combating paramilitaries, most due to the efforts of the attorney general under the direction of Alfonso Gomez Mendez, who completed his four-year term in July 2001. [9f] On 25 May 2001, prosecutors seized valuable information related to paramilitary financial networks and communications in the city of Monteria, Cordoba. The investigation focused on how landowners and business people in the region donated heavily to the AUC. [9f]

Organisation of Paramilitary Groups

A.53 Paramilitary groups emerged in the main in the early 1980s. Although some paramilitary groups reflect rural residents' desire to organise solely for self-defence, others are vigilante organisations, and others are actually the paid private armies of narcotics traffickers or large landowners. There is a pre-eminent paramilitary umbrella organisation, the AUC, whose membership totals approximately 5,000 to 7,000 armed members, divided into 7 main organisations. The largest is the ACCU, operating in Cordoba and Antioquia departments. The AUC has its own force of as many as 4000 combatants.

A.54 On 4 August 2000, the AUC announced the creation of a new front called Paez, of 600 men. The announcement was made in Valle del Cauca Department. The Paez Front was expected to join the Calima, the Pacifico, and the Farallones Fronts to form a Western bloc. [17fl] The AUC announced on 19 January 2001 that it had set up a new front based in Bogota, to be known as "the Capital Front". It is purportedly set up to cut off supplies from Bogota to the geurrilla forces. Police suspect it may follow the pattern of the AUC Metro Bloc based in Medellin. In Medellin, the bloc recruits from the criminal gangs (the sicario), running extortion rings, directing assassinations, and staging "actions" such as bus burnings. [18m]

A.55 In a report dated September 2000, the Canadian IRB stated that "No report stating a definitive number of paramilitary groups or their specific areas of operation could be found among the sources consulted. As described below, some reports refer to paramilitary actions or presence of paramilitary groups throughout the country, with varying degrees of autonomy, coordination and mobility." [20af] The army and the paramilitaries are engaged in a propaganda war, each running their own radio stations and programmes. [18a]

A.56 The Human Rights Watch reports contend that paramilitaries are closely linked with military intelligence and armed forces sources (For further details refer to the section below on the "Alleged co-operation between the government security forces and the paramilitaries, A.67-69"). [9f]

A.57 The leader of AUC Carlos Castano claimed in an open letter to Congress (in September 2000) that financial support for paramilitary groups had increased as "businesses seek to protect their investments from left-wing guerrilla attacks." [11v] The AUC has also admitted that it gleans a percentage from drug shipments, and has taken land for self-sustaining camps. [17do] Support for the paramilitaries has increased as the paramilitaries have developed a well-financed recruitment scheme, seen especially in Barrancabermeja city, typically comprising of the equivalent of £150 plus cellphone and gun, recruiting boys as young as 12. [18ak,18bf]

A.58 Carlos Castano heads both the AUC and the ACCU. . [3e,11m] One source has claimed that paramilitary groups can and are operating on a national level, and identifies the departments of Meta, Choco, Norte de Santander, and Putumayo as the main locations of conflict with FARC. [11b] An example of such conflict is the execution by FARC of 20 alleged AUC members in Meta, in October 2000. [11ai,17it] It has been estimated that in 1999 there are about 3000 minors involved in the paramilitary organisations, mainly used for intelligence work [17ah] Reports in 2001 have tended towards 8,150 paramilitaries in AUC control. [3h,18aj]

A.59 The paramilitaries have been reported as basing their actions on selective killings, intimidation and the forced displacement of persons not directly involved in the hostilities. They have targeted teachers, labour leaders, community activists, mayors, town council members and peasants whom they accused of supporting the leftist guerrillas. [3d,3e,12a]

A.60 In 1999, Vice-president Gustavo Bell set up a new unit to combat paramilitaries drawing from military intelligence, the police, Procuraduria General de la Nacion (Office of the Procurator General), DAS and the Ministry of Defence. The Fiscalia General de la Nacion (Office of the Attorney General or the Office of the Prosecutor General) was also provided with an additional support unit. The Amnesty International report questions the effectiveness of the unit. [4i] However, the government, in 2001, secured the arrest in Spain of a former ambassador, Carlos Arturo Marulanda, for forming paramilitary squads in 1996, [18ck] and the arrest of retired General Rito Alejo del Rio in July 2001, on charges of collaboration with paramilitaries in 1996. [18cq]

iii) Security Forces

Alleged abuse of human rights by the security forces

A.61 In February 2002, The Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International and the Washington Office on Latin America (WOLA) presented a briefing paper to the U.S. State Department. This brief was an assessment of the Colombian government's compliance with the human rights conditions stipulated by the U.S. government as a condition of the country's new economic aid to Colombia. [9f] The brief drew the following conclusions:

(1) There is no evidence to show that the Commander General of the Colombian Armed Forces is exercising the power held by his office to suspend security force members who have been credibly alleged to have committed gross human rights violations or to have aided and abetted paramilitary groups. [9f] High ranking officers charged with serious abuses or against whom there is credible evidence of support for or tolerance of paramilitaries remained in active duty in 2001. [9f] For a list of these officers see "Colombia Fails Rights Test". [9f]

(2) The Colombian armed forces continue to adjudicate cases involving allegations of serious human rights and do not co-operate with civilian prosecutors and judicial authorities. [9f] For example, during the civilian investigation into the Chengue massacre- in which General Quinones was implicated- the Prosecutor Paternina told her superior officers that Colombia's Marine Infantry failed repeatedly to provide her with the support necessary to search a ranch where the paramilitaries responsible for the massacre were located. [9f] On 26 August 2001, the Prosecutor Paternina was shot dead outside her home. [9f] Between October 2000 and October 2001, the Military Tribunal issued eight guilty verdicts for crimes that it described as possible human rights violations. The Tribunal's continued adjudication of possible human rights cases was therefore carried out in contravention of the law and a Presidential Directive. [9f]

(3) The Colombian armed forces have failed to sever links with the paramilitary forces and the government's progress against paramilitaries amounts to little more than rhetoric. [9f] The report cites the example of the temporary seizure of a community of displaced people in Choco where the paramilitaries reportedly operated with as many as 800 troops at a time. [9f] The report also claims that during much of 2000, the AUC paid monthly salaries based on rank to local Colombian army and police officials in the department of Putumayo. In the state of Cauca, soldiers moonlighting as paramilitaries earned up to $500 per month. [9f]

A.62 According to the U.S. State Department report for 2001, government security forces continued to commit serious human rights abuses and extrajudicial killings. [3i] An analysis of data from the Centre for Investigations and Popular Research (CINEP), published by the Colombian Commission of Jurists (CCJ), a non-governmental organisation (NGO), claimed that from June 2000 to June 2001, state forces committed 100 reported extrajudicial killings, including deaths that resulted from police abuse of authority. [3i] This represents a sharp increase from the previous years: from 21 in 1998 to 24 in the first nine months of 1999, according to CINEP. [3d, 3e] CINEP reported that from January to September 2001 state security force members committed 92 "intentional homicides of protected persons" and caused the deaths of 25 civilians during combat. [3i] CINEP also reported that security forces were responsible for 119 intentional homicide of protected persons during the same period in 2000. [3i]

A.63 The Colombian Commission of Jurists (CCJ) attributed four massacres, of the total of more than 200 for 2001, to acts of negligence or deliberate omission by state security forces. [3i] The CCJ analysed CINEP data from June 2000 to June 2001 and attributed 3 percent of civilian victims and persons killed outside of combat to state security forces. [3i]

A.64 According to a Colombian army report published 4 February 2001, complaints of human rights abuses by members of the security forces fell from 3,000 in 1995 to 430 in 2000. The report did lay the blame for 80 percent of 19,830 cases of human rights abuse recorded in the 1995-2000 period with the rebel forces. 57 civil court investigations were launched on the basis of the year 2000 complaints. [18ag]

A.65 According to the US State Department Report for 1997, the military services and police have established 225 human rights offices throughout the country since 1994. These offices accept and investigate public complaints of abuse and coordinate human rights training programmes for public security personnel. [3c]

A.66 On 8 January 2001 it was reported that Army Colonel Rafael Alfonso Hani Jimeno was arrested in connection with the activities in August 1999 of a paramilitary group operating in La Habana, nr Buga, in Valle department. [18d] Likewise, on 12 February 2001, a military tribunal found two officers, former General Jaime Uscategui and Colonel Jorge Orozco, guilty of allowing a series of massacres by the AUC in May 1997. [18ao] In February 2001, a police captain, Carlos Gomez, was arrested in connection with the attempted murder of a trade union leader, Wilson Borja. [11ba] On 1 March 2001, the National Police discharged 135 officers (mirroring the 388 army officers discharged in October 2000) as part of a purging of individuals alleged with human rights abuses and / or with possible links to paramilitary groups. [11bk]

Alleged cooperation between government security forces and the paramilitary groups

A.67 According to a report by the Human Rights Watch, presented in consultation with the U.S. State Department on 1 February 2002, Colombian human rights groups have identified five massacres carried out by paramilitaries in 2001 and January 2002. [9f] The report states that there is credible evidence that Colombian military units either took direct part or allowed the killings to take place and the perpetrators to escape. [9f] The Human Rights Watch has reportedly received independent, recent and credible reports of continued collaboration between the Colombian military and the paramilitary groups in the following regions: Middle Magdalena region under control of the Fifth Brigade and units attached to the Colombian Navy; the southern Pacific coast under the control of the Third Brigade and units of the Colombian Navy; the department of Putumayo under the control of the Twenty-Fourth Brigade and units of the Colombian Navy; the Uraba region under the control of the Seventeenth Brigade and units of the Colombian Navy; and the department of Antioquia under the control of the Fourth Brigade. [9f]

A.68 The U.S. State Department Report for 2001 asserts that credible allegations of cooperation with paramilitary groups continued in some regions. [3i] These included instances of passive support and direct collaboration by members of the public security forces, in particular the army, who reportedly shared intelligence with the paramilitaries, did not challenge paramilitary roadblocks, provided them with ammunition, failed to respond to warnings of impending paramilitary massacres or selective killings, and allegedly even joined their ranks when off duty. [3i] It is also alleged that the government has failed to respond effectively to credible warnings of threats by paramilitaries or even massacres. [9f] An early warning system paid for by the U.S. and administered by the office of the Public Advocate registered 20 separate warnings nationwide between June and September 2001. Of these, eleven resulted in killings being committed or some threat by the armed groups being posed to the civilians. [9f]

A.69 Allegations of close links between the government security forces and rightwing paramilitary groups have persisted in the recent years. In 1998 the Human Rights Watch accused the security forces of committing serious violations "with little apparent will to investigate and punish those responsible." [9b] In the same year newspaper reports claimed that a massacre committed by the rightwing paramilitaries on 18 May had been carried out with the full knowledge of the authorities and that the security forces had offered no protection. The Defence Minister refuted this allegation. [14t]

A.70 In 1998 human rights activists claimed that although the Attorney General's Office issued a growing number of warrants for paramilitary leaders, including AUC leader Carlos Castano, the security forces made few arrests. A notable exception, however, was the capture of Victor Carranza, a powerful Castano ally, on February 25 1998. It is claimed that the civilian security agency who captured Carranza did not notify security force agencies beforehand for fear they would alert him. [9b] In 1998, the AUC leader Carlos Castano admitted that some elements of the armed forces tolerate the paramilitary groups, but asserted that the military had increased pressure on his forces. [3d]

A.71 On 14 January 1999 the Colombian government issued a communique on measures against self-defence groups. The security forces were reported to have been ordered to redouble their actions against the groups. [15i] Human Rights Watch 1999, however, concluded that the "army continues to engage in serious violations of the laws of war, with little apparent will to investigate or punish those responsible. At the root of these violations is the Colombian Army's consistent and profound failure or refusal to properly distinguish civilians from combatants." [9b]

A.72 The armed forces claimed that between January and July 1999, they killed 733 guerrillas and 11 paramilitaries. During the same period, they said that they had arrested 371 rebels and 49 paramilitaries. This is considerably higher than the figures reported in previous years. [15cc] In August 2000, the army reported the following statistics:1,076 guerrillas and 35 paramilitaries killed; 1,243 guerrillas and 287 paramilitaries captured. [17eg] In July 2001, the army gave the 2001 half-year figure of insurgents' deaths as 442 guerrillas and 64 paramilitarie. [18co] Notable guerrillas killed included FARC commander Jose Gilberto Lopez Vallejo, in combat in Dagua, Valle, in early September 2001. [11cb]

A.73 In 1998 the Government discontinued its practice (begun in December 1994) of organising and registering civilian rural defense cooperatives, known collectively as "Convivir", which were to provide counterinsurgency intelligence to local police and military commanders. On 25 July 1998, Convivir president Carlos Alberto Diaz announced the disbanding of 289 of the program's 414 officially recognised Convivirs. [3d] The last Convivir was wound up in 1999 [3e] However, credible outside observers place the total number of such groups at over 700. [3d] Although the authorities had originally intended these groups to be unarmed, they subsequently authorised an undetermined number to carry small arms in self-defence. [3d]

A.74 The military high command, under the leadership of Minister of Defence Gustavo Bell and General Fernando Tapias, stated repeatedly that it would not tolerate any collaboration between the military personnel and the paramilitary groups and that any such action would not be consistent with the leadership's position. [3i]

Judicial investigation into the alleged abuse of human rights by the security forces

A.75 The Procuraduria (Inspector General), which conducts disciplinary investigations of all public sector employees, received 228 complaints against members of state security forces in 2001, compared with 201 during 2000. [3i] The Inspector General's office investigated 183 members of state security forces on disciplinary charges related to massacres and forced disappearances. Of this number, the Inspector General sanctioned 20 members of the army, 14 members of the police, and 1 marine. [3i] As in the previous year, the office continued to refer all cases involving human rights violations to the Prosecutor General for criminal investigation. [3i]

A.76 According to a March 2000 report by the MOD, during the first half of 1999, the most recent year for which information was available, the military judiciary convicted and sentenced 206 members of the National Police, army and navy for serious offences that the Ministry identified as violations of human rights. [3i]

A.77 A 1997 Constitutional Court decision transferred jurisdiction for the investigation and prosecution of serious human rights violations and other crimes not related directly to acts of service from the military judicial system to the civilian judiciary. [3i] As of November, the military judiciary had turned 1,373 cases, of which an estimated 41 percent were human rights violations, over to the civilian judiciary for investigation and possible prosecution, including cases involving high-ranking officers. [3i] However, the Human Rights Watch claims that the source of this information is Colombia's Ministry of Defence statistics, which are notoriously unreliable. [9f] Furthermore, HRW asserts that it is not clear how many of these cases involved human rights violations. [9f]

A.78 The new Military Penal Code reiterates that the crimes of genocide, forced disappearance, and torture must be tried in civilian courts. [3i] During the year, the military judiciary turned 66 cases over to the civilian judiciary, compared with 496 cases during 2000. According to the U.S. State Department, this reduction does not reflect a lack of willingness to transfer such cases; rather a large backlog of cases from previous years were transferred in 2000. [3i]

A.79 In November 2001, the Constitutional Court ruled that the officers implicated in the Mapiripan massacre of 1997 should be retried in a Civilian Court and thus struck down the sentence handed down by the Military Court. [18dn][ 9f] The Constitutional Court ruled that "the crime of omission" of which General Jaime Humberto Uscategui and Col Hernan Orozco are accused "is not act of service or related to service." This brings the two officers within the jurisdiction of the civilian court. [18dn] Amnesty International welcomed the ruling and stated "if the sentence is upheld and General Uscategui is found guilty, this could mean that the mechanisms that allow impunity in Colombia may be crumbling". [18dn]

iv) Repression of human rights defenders

A.80 The US State Department Report for 2001 reported that human rights monitors worked under constant fear for their physical safety. [3i] Although the government generally did not interfere with the work of human rights NGO's, there were unconfirmed reports that security forces harassed or threatened human rights groups. Citing changes in the revised Criminal Code, in August 2001 the Prosecutor General's office revoked charges filed against retired Brigadier Generals Millan and Del Rio for bribing witnesses to testify falsely against a leading NGO organizer and a labour leader, although the two men remain under investigation. [3i]

A.81 Paramilitary, guerrilla and other unidentified groups subjected human rights groups to intense pressure during 2001, in the form of surveillance, harassing telephone calls, graffiti campaigns, and death threats. Paramilitary and guerrilla groups also have been implicated in the deaths of human rights and development workers. According to the CCJ, nine human rights advocates were killed and four human rights workers disappeared in 2001. Forty eight human rights workers have been killed or have disappeared in the past 5 years. [3i]

A.82 On numerous occasions during the year 2001, paramilitary groups in several municipalities circulated lists of the names and persons they considered "military targets", which included the names of local human rights activists, labour organizers, and politicians. [3i] For example, paramilitaries are thought to be responsible for torture and murder of Alma Rosa Jaramillo Lafourie, a lawyer and development worker for the Programme for Peace and Development in Magdalena Medio, Morales, Bolivar Department. On 9 September 2001, nine men shot and killed Sister Yolanda Ceron, a human rights worker for the Catholic Church in Tumaco, Narino Department. [3i]

A.83 The leftwing guerrilla groups have been held equally responsible for the suppression of the human rights activists. National and international organizations strongly condemned FARC for killings of the peace community activists Petrona Sanchez and Edwin Ortega in Choco Department in December 2001. [3i] Armed groups also targeted regional human rights ombudsmen. In January 2001, a paramilitary was charged with murder of regional human rights ombudsman Ivan Villamizar in Cucuta, Norte de Santander department.

A.84 The Meta Civic Committee had been founded either in 1989 (according to the Human Rights Watch in 1996) or in 1991 (Peace Brigades International in 1997). The committee represented 32 local popular, religious and trade union groups. Since then, up to September 1999, five members have been killed, three disappeared and that, by 1996, 25 members had been forced to flee Meta because of safety concerns. There have been no reports found on the committee since 1998. [20p]

A.85 Other human rights workers were forced to relocate within the country, or flee abroad, following threats. The Bogota-based representative of the UNHCR for Human Rights requested special protection for nongovernmental human rights workers and organisations. [3c]

A.86 In April 1998 Edward Umana Mendoza, Colombia's leading human rights lawyer was killed in his office. On the same day, Jose Noe Rios, President Samper's leading peace negotiator, left Colombia. It was reported that he had been receiving death threats after he brokered a peace deal with the ELN. [14s]

A.87 Human Rights Watch reported that "defending human rights remained a dangerous profession in Colombia." citing the fact that "in the first nine months of 1998, at least six human rights defenders were murdered, among them government investigators, officials charged with investigating complaints about human rights abuses". [9b]

A.88 In January 1999 the region of Armenia was hit by an earthquake which claimed the lives of at least 920 people. The AUC, using the earthquake as a smokescreen to carry out their attacks, eventually claimed responsibility for the kidnapping of four human rights workers whom they accused of being subversives who sympathised with the guerrillas. The kidnapping was followed by the murder of two workers for the Committee of Solidarity with Political Prisoners (CSPP), who were forced from a bus in Antioquia and shot by the roadside. [15d] Human rights groups in Colombia and abroad condemned the attacks and urged the Colombian government to take strong action. Amnesty International issued a report in February 1999 in which it accused the government of failing to take effective steps to protect human rights defenders. Amnesty also reported that the two human rights workers who were killed (Everardo de Jesus Puertas and Julio Ernesto Gonzalez) worked for the Committee of Solidarity with Political Prisoners (CSPP). Shortly after their murder the CSPP closed its offices fearing for the safety of the workers. [4e] Later accounts on 3 February 1999 reported that the paramilitaries had murdered a total of seven human rights workers and kidnapped seven more, all of them from agencies funded by Oxfam and other international organisations. [15l]

A.89 In March 1999 the peace talks came to a halt after three American human rights activists, working with the indigenous U'wa tribe, had been kidnapped and then murdered. Their bodies were found across the border with Venezuala. Both FARC and the ELN denied responsibility for the killings and blamed the "enemies of peace". However, US officials blamed FARC and demanded that the organisation should hand over the murderers. FARC later admitted the killing, blaming a rogue faction overstepping orders. [3d,3e,16as]

A.90 Members of the organisation CREDHOS (Corporacion Regional para la Defensa de los Derechos Humanos) have reported alleged police harassment in 1999 [4h] In May 1999 Amnesty International reported the abduction in Medellin of Piedad Cordoba de Castro, Liberal Party Senator and president of the Senate's Human Rights Commission. Carlos Castano, leader of the United Self-Defence Forces, claimed responsibility for the abduction and demanded that AUC be granted political recognition and a direct role in the forthcoming peace talks. [4f,4h]

A.91 Members of Peace Brigades International (PBI) and the Popular Women's Organisation (OFP) have claimed to have been targeted by paramilitaries in Barrancabermeja. [18ak] On 5 September 2001, the vice president of the Congressional Peace Committee, Jairo Rojas, was killed by unidentified gunmen. [11by,18di] The president of the Association for the Development of Communications and Culture (Adecosan) was shot by an assassin on 16 July 2001. [18cl]

A.92 The protection programme. This has been instituted by Presidential Directive no. 07 of 9 September 1999, reiterating the commitment given within Presidential Directive no. 011 of June 1997. The directive includes orders to all public officials to abstain from questioning the legitimacy of human rights organisations, and from making false accusations which could compromise their security or reputation. This aspect, the report alleges, is not enforced effectively and proceeds to give examples. [4i]

A.93 The Government, through the Ministry of Interior and the DAS, allocated approximately $11.3 million to its 3-year-old programme to protect human rights advocates and labour activists associated with 88 different human rights NGO's and unions. The funds were designated for security measures for individuals as well as for the headquarters of the NGO's, an emergency radio network, and funding for travel abroad for individuals who faced a particular threat. However, the human rights groups continued to state that the protection programmes are inadequate to address the crisis and called for increased efforts to combat impunity. [3i]

A.94 In 2001, the Ministry of Interior fought successfully to quadruple its budget and extended protection measures to 2,344 union leaders, NGO members, witnesses, community leaders, members of the Patriotic Union, and journalists. In 2000, 880 persons were provided with protection that included bulletproofing for 65 residences and offices. [3i]

v) The State human rights apparatus and role of the international community (see also paragraphs A.92-A.94 above)

A.95 The government has an extensive human rights apparatus, which includes the office of the President's Adviser for Human Rights, headed by Vice President Gustavo Bell. In September 2000, human rights expert Reinaldo Botero was named director of the presidential programme for human rights and international humanitarian law. [3i] The Ministry of Interior, the human rights office of the MOD, and dependent offices support the executive branch's efforts on human rights for each of the public security forces. [3i]

A.96 The office of the National Human Rights Ombudsman, its regional representatives and corps of public defenders, the Inspector General's office and its delegate for human rights and regional representatives, and the Prosecutor General's office and its human rights unit are all independent institutions, not subject to executive branch direction. [3i] The House of Representatives elects the Public Ministry's National Ombudsman for Human Rights for a 4 year period, which does not coincide with that of the President. The office has the constitutional duty to ensure the promotion and exercise of human rights. The Ombudsman provides public defence attorneys and a channel for complaints of human rights violations. However, the Ombudsman lacks sufficient funding and staff. [3i]

A.97 In September 2001, the MOD reported that in the past 5 years, 119,349 security force members received human rights training, including 2,269 human rights trainers. Many observers have credited these programmes with having done much to foster a climate of increased respect for human rights and international humanitarian law within the military forces in recent years. [3i]

A.98 In April 1997 the UNHCR for Human Rights opened a field office in Bogota. The office was tasked with monitoring and analysing the human rights situation throughout the country and with the provision of assistance to the Government, civil society, and NGOs in the field of human rights protection. The office submitted private reports to the Government and to the U.N. and occasionally spoke out publicly on particularly flagrant abuses committed by government, paramilitary, or guerrilla forces. [3c] On 16 February 2001, the Special Representative of the Secretary General of the U.N. on Human Rights Defenders, expressed deep concern over the violation of the rights of human rights workers. She revisited Colombia in October 2001. In November 2001, the U.N. Rapporteur on violence against women investigated violence against women in the country's armed conflict. [3i]

A.99 On 4 October 2000, the International Committee of the Red Cross announced that it was withdrawing its assistance in the evacuation of wounded people from conflict zones. This decision was prompted after two attacks on ambulances. [11ag,17io] After resumption, the Red Cross on 9 March suspended operations again after a wounded rebel was taken at gunpoint from an ambulance, and later found murdered. [11bl]

A.100 The Colombian government response to the publication of the US State Department report for the year 2000 ([3h]), on 26 February 2001, was that it was "... a very balanced report, it is quite good, and it recognises the progress made by Colombia regarding human rights. It is a report that also points out some of our country's problems, and it identifies the major violators of international humanitarian law, meaning the guerrilla and paramilitary groups." (Luis Fernando Ramirez, Defence Minister). [18at,18au]

vi) The collapse of the peace talks (for a history of the Peace Process see section 3. History)

A.101 The conflict between the guerrilla groups, the government and paramilitary forces remains the dominant issue in domestic politics as the presidential elections approach (presidential elections expected in May 2002). [18dr] After three years of lurching from crisis to crisis the peace process with the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) has failed. [11ck] The FARC's use of the demilitarised zone (DMZ), which the government granted them in 1998, as a base for their guerrilla activities has been a major contributory factor in the collapse of the peace process. The rebels turned the area into a military camp, training new cadres, and recruiting minors, importing arms and exporting drugs according to reports by human rights groups and the Colombian security. [11ck][ 11cn]

A.102 The turning point came in August 2001 when three suspected IRA men were arrested as they left the DMZ and charged with illegal training of the FARC rebels. [11ck][ 11cn] Subsequently President Pastrana imposed new restrictions on the DMZ: only those with government permit could pass through. [11ck] He also ordered surveillance flights over the area, which the FARC claimed, violated the terms of their agreement with the government. It was these restrictions which undid the peace process. [11ck] In September, FARC guerrillas kidnapped and killed Conselo Araujo, a former culture minister and wife of Attorney General Edgardo Maya.

A.103 On 5th October 2001 the government and the FARC signed the San Fransico agreement in a bid to save the peace talks. [22c] Colombia came dangerously close to a full-scale war on 9 January 2002 when President Pastrana ordered the FARC to vacate the DMZ within 48 hours. War was averted with the intervention of the UN representative James LeMoyne who persuaded President Pastrana to agree to extend the life of the DMZ until 20 January 2002. [22e][ 22c] On the 14th January the government agreed with the FARC to discuss a timetable regarding a cease-fire and the end of kidnappings. [22f]

A.104 Despite the consensus to restart the peace talks, on 15th January the government announced that it would step up its military control of the DMZ. The Defence Minister also urged the FARC to put an end to its attacks on the police and military headquarters throughout the country. [22d] On 20 January the FARC signed a new accord with the government and pledged to reach a cease-fire by 7th April. [22j][ 22k] Amid escalation of violence and attacks by the FARC on civilian and military targets there was little hope that a permanent cease-fire could be negotiated. In response to the wave of guerrilla attacks, the ten friendly countries supporting the peace process announced an emergency meeting. [22j]

A.105 In parallel with the negotiations with the FARC, the Colombian government also reached an agreement with ELN to resume peace talks. On 24 November 2001 in Havana, both sides signed an agreement to start discussion of a ceasefire. [18cn] Significantly, ELN did not demand to be granted a demilitarised zone similar to that enjoyed by the FARC. [18cn] In January 2002, the Colombian government and ELN delegates met in Cuba to continue their peace talks. [22q] (See also the section on ELN)

A.106 On 21 February 2002, the Peace Process appeared to be at an end. The hijacking of a commercial aircraft in Neiva and kidnapping of a prominent senator, allegedly by the FARC, prompted President Pastrana to end the demilitarized zone. [11cs] President Pastrana announced his decision to end the demilitarized zone beginning at midnight, 20-21 February 2002, and authorised the Colombian army to retake the zone. He also declared his intention to reissue arrest warrants for the FARC leaders and to annul the group's political status. [11cs]

A.107 The Colombian armed forces promptly reoccupied the demilitarized zone, previously under the FARC command. As the Colombian army advanced through the DMZ, estimated 5000 rebel fighters retreated through the zone's 42000 sq. km of dense tropical jungle and mountain passes. [22y] By 2 March 2002 the Colombian armed forces were declaring that the first phase of Operation Tanatos (after the Greek word for death) had been completed successfully. This involved occupation of the five major towns in what used to be the DMZ granted to the FARC guerrillas in 1998. [22z]

A.108 In preparation for the second phase, pursuing the guerrillas in their jungle hideouts, the government has placed under military control 19 municipalities in the southern departments of Meta, Tolima, Cundinamaraca, Huila, Caqueta and Guaviare. [22z] As a consequence, in April 2002, in Tolima Department, a territorial war is reportedly being waged by armed groups. The guerrillas, the army and the self-defence groups are fighting to take over the department metre by metre. This has led to a significant increase of violence in the region. [22be] In the aftermath of the collapse of the peace talks with the FARC, President Pastrana is increasingly looking to the U.S. for military aid to combat urban terrorism from left wing rebels. Strategists say the FARC is likely to attempt more bombings in cities, so far spared the worst of the 38-year-old insurgency. [22bd]

Anti-Terrorist Measures

A.109 Following the collapse of the peace process and recapture of the DMZ by government forces, for the country as a whole, the government has announced new emergency 'anti-terrorist' measures. [22z] These measures include: allowing governors and mayors to declare curfews, authorising the army to conduct searches without warrants, banning civilians from carrying guns, and offering rewards for information on 'terrorists'. These measures should have been put to congress for approval by 20 March 2002). [22z]

Plan Colombia

A.110 Plan Colombia was originally a $ 1.7 billion aid plan intorduced by the Clinton administration on 1 February 2000, aimed primarily at stopping the vast flow of illegal drugs to the United States. [22bf] At the time the US government argued that integral to Plan Colombia was a commitment to social and economic development. [6c] There were also two ways that human rights were factored into Plan Colombia. These were the establishment of a secure environment and the Leahy Law on human rights monitoring. [6c] The Leahy Law stipulated that all assistance to the Colombian armed forces was contingent upon human rights screening. No assistance would be provided to any unit of the Colombian military for which there was credible evidence of serious human rights violations by its members. [6c]

A.111 However, President Clinton waived the Leahy Law after having been persuaded that the US has "a system in place for specific case-by-case investigation of serious allegations" and that Pastrana "has submitted legislation to the Colombian parliament ... for civil trials for allegations of military abuses of human rights." [11n,17gc] Furthermore, Clinton said "What I did was to permit Plan Colombia to go forward and to be implemented because I'm convinced that the president is committed to the proper course in human rights". [17gd]

A.112 As a gesture of opposition, FARC increased their attacks in the week after Clinton's visit to Colombia in August 2000, with 22 members of the security forces and 60 rebels killed in clashes. The army placed the total casualty rate for the five days after the Clinton visit at 112 people killed. [11w] The ELN added to the disruption by ensuring the Cano Limon pipeline was holed and out of action for the week. [11w,17gh] FARC and the ELN launched attacks in five municipalities in Cauca Department to coincide with the visit. The Pan-American Highway was blocked by the ELN with a torched roadblock of four buses and a lorry. [17gx] The ELN had previously mounted roadblocks and stoppages in early August, setting light to 46 vehicles by the 10 August, as part of its plan colombia protest. The protests were lifted on 12 August. [17fs,17fu]

A.113 Other opposition to Clinton's visit included an occupation by Bogota students, and a noisy march of about 5000 protestors. [17gp,17gr,17gs] Thirty seven NGOs within Colombia registered their rejection of the Plan. [17fy] The FARC also declared that it would not allow the destruction of coca crops, arguing that left in the hands of the Colombian military, the exercise will be a cover to oust the rebels. [11z]

A.114 The original US plan had five main elements, including the drug trafficking interdiction (with an appropriation of 465.6 million US dollars); alternative economic development ($174.0 million); boosting governing capacity ($122.0 million); and support to the Colombian Nation Police ($115.6 million). The most controversial element in view of NGOs and other commentators was the $441.9 million for "the Push into Southern Colombia." This move comprised 2,800 US trained and armed Colombian troops, three special anti-narcotic battalions, moving directly in 60 Black Hawk and Huey attack helicopters into FARC held territory. [11n,11y,17gt] Also $122 million were allocated to human rights and justice programs, $29 million more than the Clinton administration had requested. [11n] During the package's journey through the Congress, an amendment was proposed to halve the budget for "the Push into Southern Colombia" in favour of alternative crop development, but was defeated. [11n]

A.115 The Push into Southern Colombia attracted criticism from peasant farmer associations, claiming that the campesinos of the Putumayo region grow coca as a cash crop to supplement subsistence crops such as pineapples, maize, plantains and yucca. Thus to randomly fumigate fields of coca will destroy other crops, and contaminate the soil and local water supplies. The Colombian government has counterargued that to leave the coca crop unchecked will lead to its unchecked expansion. Environmentalists have argued that jungles will be lost either way: to a growing coca crop or to fresh areas cleared to replenish the lost crop. [11u,11aa] One NGO (European Network for Brotherhood and Solidarity with Colombia), in September 2001, claimed that fumigation programmes had affected food crop production. [18dl]

A.116 The Colombian government has proclaimed that the social development aspect of Plan Colombia has begun in the summer of 2001. In May 2001, the "Families in Action" project began in various municipalities in Cundinamarca, Boyaca and Tolima departments. [10b] In August, the government announced that the project would cover 287 municipalities throughout the country over the next three years. [10g]

A.117 Under President Bush's administration Plan Colombia has significantly expanded. President Bush has also linked aid to Colombia to improvements in the country's human rights record. On 10 January 2002, President Bush signed the Public Law 107-115, which covers most foreign aid. Section 567 of the law establishes specific human rights conditions for military assistance to Colombia. Colombia must meet these conditions in order for aid to be disbursed. [9f] In a meeting on 1 February with the State Department, various groups including Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International and the Washington Office on Latin America presented a report to the U.S. government which concludes that to date Colombian government had not satisfied any of the human rights conditions. The NGO's concluded that the human rights certification should not be issued in the case of Colombia. [9f]

A.118 The White House has asked the Congress for "new, explicit and legal" authorities that would allow U.S assistance to Colombia in its fight against drug trafficking, terrorism and other security threats. [22bf][ 22bg] According to the Assistant Secretary of State for Western Hemisphere Affairs Otto Reich, these authorities should recongnize that terrorist and narcotic problems in Colombia are "inextricably intertwined" and give Washington the flexibility to attack "this hydra-headed threat". [22bg]

A.119 In addition to the $35 million assigned to the White House in February 2002, the U.S. government has requested another $349 million to support Plan Colombia programmes in the fiscal year 2003. It has also asked for another $98 million to train and equip Colombian troops protecting the Cano Limon oil pipeline. Some $275 million of the $439 million, requested for fiscal year 2003, would be used to improve the Colombian army and police. The remaining $164 millions would go to strengthening human rights, democracy, support for vulnerable social segments and to promote respect for law. [22bg] In this new spending bill, President Bush is seeking authority to permit U.S.-funded combat helicopters to be used directly against the FARC and ELN, the two biggest leftist insurgency groups. [22bf]

5B. HUMAN RIGHTS: SPECIFIC GROUPS

i) Women

B.1 The 1991 Colombian Constitution prohibits any form of discrimination against women and the authorities are required to "..guarantee adequate and effective participation by women at decision-making levels of public administration". However, discrimination persists in practice. Women in non-agricultural employment are paid 85% of what men in comparable employment are paid. The U.S. State Department Report for 1996 suggested that women applying for jobs must be able to demonstrate that they are better qualified than men for the same position if they are to be successful. A high proportion of those in very low paid jobs are women. [3a]

B.2 Rape and other violent crimes against women are common in Colombia and these offences are rarely prosecuted successfully. When prosecutions do proceed sentences for sexual abuse range from 6 months – 8 years, although these may be reduced as a result of 'good behaviour'. It must be noted, however, that police may not legally detain an individual for sex abuse unless it was committed in conjunction with other crimes.

B.3 During a mission to Colombia in November 2001, The United Nations Special Rapporteur expressed concern at the high levels of violence, particularly sexual violence, being perpetrated against women by all parties to the armed conflict. [1j] According to this report, the conflict has reproduced and deepened discrimination between the different groups and women suffer intersectional discrimination on the basis of gender, and their ethnic and cultural origin. The report charges the guerrillas, the paramilitary groups and the security forces with rape and gender-based violence against women. [1j]

B.4 Internal displacement of the population, due to the armed conflict, has effected Colombian women disproportionately. The UN Special Rapporteur also found that displaced women and children account for 74 per cent of displaced Colombians who need special assistance. [1j] Women are often forced to flee from their homes when male members of the family have been killed, have disappeared or have been compelled to seek safety or work elsewhere. [1j]

B.5 In July 1996 a law was passed by President Samper (Law 294) relating to domestic sexual violence. [3a] Law 294 is considered to be a positive legislative step towards protection of women against domestic violence in Colombia. The government is trying "to implement the law and make accessible certain services such as providing therapeutic support for the assailants, shelter for the victims and instituting departmental and municipal Family Protection Councils". [20aj] The law enables "the judges to order the aggressor to move out of the home which he shares with the victim, and characterising the sexual violence between spouses as "a crime". [20aj] Section 25 of the law also stipulates a penalty of six months to two years imprisonment for sexual violence against a spouse. [20aj]

B.6 Mistresses are not held to be protected under section 25, except in cases where the woman has had a child with the perpetrator. [20w] Protection under law 294 is extended from married couples or permanent partners (los conyuges o companeros permanentes), to male and female heads of household, regardless of whether or not they live in the same dwelling (el padre y madre de familia, aunque no convivan en un mismo hogar), to younger or older relatives, including adopted children, to all other persons who have become part of the family unit on a permanent basis (todas las demaas que de manera permanente se hallaren integrados a la unidad domestica). [3a,20w]

B.7 Despite these measures "official figures show that domestic violence against women continues to rise at alarming levels". [20aj] United Nations Committee on Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) has noted "an enormous gap" exists between the establishment and functioning of the "machinery to monitor and control the application of the laws and a "lack of effective machinery to enforcement of court decisions". [20aj]

B.8 A 1997 law also made additional, substantial modifications to the Penal Code and introduced sentences of between 4 and 40 years for crimes against sexual freedom or human dignity, including: rape, sex with a minor, sexual abuse, induction into prostitution and child pornography. The law also repealed an old law that fully exonerated a rapist if he subsequently offered to marry the victim and she accepted. [3d]

ii) Homosexuals

B.9 It is not against Colombian law to be homosexual, but a considerable amount of public ill-will exists, as in most Latin American countries where a machismo attitude is widespread. [8] Homosexuals are occasionally attacked by vigilante groups who excuse their actions as 'social cleansing'. [4b] Hundreds of people have allegedly been killed by 'death squads', presumably paramilitaries, who are believed to have the support of the security forces, to rid towns and cities of homosexuals who are considered 'disposable'. [4a] Prostitutes, including child prostitutes have been similarly treated. [4b]

B.10 The US State Department report for 1998 reported that the killing of homosexuals as part of the practice of social cleansing continued. [3d]

B.11 Sexual orientation is less of a barrier to administrative office. In 1997, the Department of Valle del Cauca (where the cities of Cali, Palmira and Tulua are located) elected an openly gay governor, Gustavo Alvarez Gardeazabal, former mayor of Tulua. [19d]

B.12 One human rights organisation, Grupo de Ambiente, has documented 328 murders by death squads of homosexuals between 1986 to 1990. The group maintains there is still strong societal prejudice against homosexuals. [19d]

B.13 However, a raft of administrative changes and court decisions since 1995 have brought in a different environment of rights and precedents. In December 1998, private contract same-sex marriages evolved. In September 1999, partners of same-sex relationships nearly won the right of inclusion in obligatory health insurance plans. In July 1999, ruling by the Constitutional Court forbid bans on gays serving in the military forces. The same court ruled, in September 1998, schoolteachers could not be fired for being openly gay, having ruled in April 1998 that students could not be dismissed by any school, including private religious schools, for being gay.domestic partnership recognised in inheritance and disability benefits cases in May 2000 and November 1999 respectively. [19d] The Constitutional Court in May 1999 and August 1999 forbid non-consensual intersex genital multilation (IGM) – where surgeons alter atypical genital mutations at birth, where there is no reason other than "normalisation" of sexuality. [19e]

iii) Religious Freedom

B.14 About 95% of the population are Roman Catholic with small Protestant and Jewish minorities [2b]

B.15 There is little religious discrimination and exclusively Roman Catholic religious instruction is no longer compulsory in state schools. [3a] However, both the Constitutional Court (on 7 October 1998) and the Council of State (on November 19 1998) found that Jehovah's Witnesses and Mennonite seminarians had been regularly forced into military service, in violations of constitutional and other provisions for conscientious objectors. Both the court and council directed the Government to exempt the two churches' seminarians in the same manner that it exempted Roman Catholic seminarians. [36] Individual Mormons have occasionally been subject to abuse. [20m]

iv) Ethnic Minority Groups

B.16 The Colombian constitution prohibits discrimination based on race, religion, sex, disability, language or social status. It also "recognises and protects the ethnic diversity of the Colombian nation". In practice not every aspect of the Constitution is upheld (see below). [3a]

Race

B.17 Around 2 million Colombian citizens of African descent live primarily in the Pacific region of the country, mainly in the departments of Choco, Valle del Cauca, Narino and along the Caribbean coast. The African-Colombian community represents about 4% of the general population and while they are entitled to all constitutional rights and protection, traditionally they have suffered from economic discrimination. [9] An African-Colombian Law was passed in 1993 in an attempt to address the problem of deprivation in predominantly black regions. Little progress has been made in expanding public services and private investment. In September 1996 the Colombian Government established a special fund to provide scholarships and to expand access to higher education for African-Colombian students. [3a] African-Colombians suffer disproportionately from political violence particularly in the area of Uraba where paramilitary and guerrilla forces struggle for control. Unemployment among some African-Colombian communities has been reported as high as 76%. Despite their traditional ties to the sea and maritime commerce, the Navy makes little effort to recruit them [3d] .

B.18 In a report dated August 1998, the Canadian Immigration and Refugee Board stated that no reports of racially motivated killings of Afro-Colombians were to be found amongst their range of sources; and that black communities were affected by the general high level of violence predominantly for reasons other than their race. [20d]

B.19 The Lebanese community is held by the authorities to be welcome in Colombia and to have fully integrated into Colombian society. [20o]

Indigenous People

B.20 It is estimated that amongst the 800,000 indigenous inhabitants of Colombia approximately 82 distinct ethnic groups live in some 334 designated Indian reserves. Although the Constitution gives special recognition to the fundamental rights of the indigenous people, members of these groups suffer discrimination in that they have traditionally been relegated to the margins of society. [3a] The Office of Indigenous Affairs protects the rights of indigenous people. The indigenous people are able to follow their cultural and religious customs, educate their children in traditional dialects and men are exempt from military service. They are, however, generally underprivileged and they suffer disproportionately from the internal armed conflict. They come under attack in disputes over land ownership and the security forces often accuse them of involvement with drugs traffickers and guerrilla groups. [3a]

B.21 Members of indigenous communities continued to be victims of all sides in the internal conflict and a number of them were killed. The UNHCR reported that 10 indigenous leaders were killed between January and August. [3i] The UNHCR also criticised both the paramilitary and FARC threats against indigenous communities and characterised the government investigation of human rights violations against indigenous groups as insufficient. [3i]

B.22 The National Indigenous Association of Colombia (ONIC) claimed that "the country's indigenous communities were being wiped out by state abandonment, violence, armed groups, drug trafficking, forced displacement and the exploitation of their ancestral lands. [18ca] For example, in May leaders of Arhuacos people told the press that they fear civil war could destroy their tribe as they become caught in the crossfire between the FARC and the AUC. [3i]

B.23 ONIC reported widespread cases in which members of indigenous communities, particularly in Putumayo, are forbidden to leave their community without either paramilitary or FARC permission, in which paramilitaries have blockaded communities, or in which indigenous people returning from urban areas are accused by guerrillas of being paramilitary collaborators. [3i] In September 2001, for instance, 7 members of an indigenous group were killed and 19 wounded in a land dispute between the Paez and Guambiano tribes, in Cauca province. [11cc]

B.24 In November 2001, rightist militiamen in central-western Colombia murdered four indians, including two local leaders. Armando Valbuena, Chairman of INIC told the reporters that the murderers were members of the AUC, Colombia's largest rightist paramilitary organisation. The militia also beat a number of indians whom they suspected of collaborating with the leftist rebels. [18cc] According to the U.S. State Department report, Paramilitary groups and guerrilla forces regularly forcibly recruited indigenous persons to serve as soldiers. [3i]

B.25 In 1998 indigenous people remained under-represented in government and politics. Two of 102 Senate seats are reserved for indigenous representatives. [3d]

The plight of the U'was, an indigenous group, continued to be reported in 1999. The forcable removal from the drilling site was effected by the army in early February 2000. 26 U'was were evicted by helicopter, 100 others scattered away from the site, and 300 troops deployed to ensure the protesters did not return [17al]

v) Children

B.26 The Government provide public education, which is compulsory for children aged 6 to 14 years of age. Nine years of education for all childen has been set as a target for the seven largest cities by 2007, and the whole country by 2017. Education spending accounted for 4.3 percent of GDP in 1998. Basic literacy stands at 90 percent. [17fv] Nevertheless, an estimated 25 percent of children of school age do not attend school. This is attributed to lax enforcement of truancy laws and inadequate classroom space. [3d] Another factor of the beakdown of education is that many children are dislocated by violence or the threat of violence, with children forming a high proportion of the internally displaced. [17fo]

B.27 The US Department of State reported in 1998 that despite constitutional and legislative commitments to the protection of children, these were only minimally implemented. The Constitution dictates the obligation on family, society and the State to assist and protect children, to foster their development, and to assure the full exercise of these rights. There is a special 'Children's Code' which sets forth many of these rights and establishes services and programmes designed to enforce the protection of minors. A new Law on Family Violence was also drafted to increase legal protection for women and children. (See i) Women B.2) The ICBF oversees all government child protection and welfare programmes and funds non-governmental and church programmes for children. [3d]

B.28 In 1998 there continued to be incidents of social cleansing -including attacks against street children. Most of these incidents were attributed to the police or paramilitary groups. On November 7, the authorities found the skeletons of 25 children in a common grave near Pereira, Risaralda department. Forensic experts concluded that the children had been murdered. Some observers speculated that the killings may have been the result of a social cleansing campaign; others suspected satanic cult members were responsible. The Bogota press reported that the Prosecutor General's office had developed a list of 15 people it believed may have been involved. In December the Prosecutor General's office arrested Pedro Pablo Ramirez Garcia in relation to the crimes. [3d]

B.29 In conflict zones, children were often caught in the crossfire between public security forces, paramilitary groups and guerrilla organisations. Children suffered disproportionately from the internal conflict, often forfeiting opportunities to study as they were displaced by conflict and suffered psychological traumas. [3d,17fx]

Minors in Conflict

B.30 The use of child soldiers is common. Although the ELN agreed to halt recruitment of children under the terms of the 28 June Mainz "Heaven's Gate" agreement, both it and the larger FARC regularly pressed children into their ranks. According to a report by NGOs, at least 6,000 children are fighting for rebel or paramilitary groups in 1998. [15p,20v]

B.31 In a meeting with a special representative of the UN Secretary General, FARC rebels promised not to recruit or kidnap more minors. They pledged to consider removing those under the age of 15 from their ranks and to halt the conscription of children. [15af] The head of FARC, Manuel Marulanda, has however stated in February 2000 that FARC will continue to recruit minors over the age of 15 years [17w] The guerrilla organisations also indoctrinate children with a view to recruiting after the age of 15. [11m,11t] The army has reported in May 2000 that the rebels are actively recruiting minors. [17bv] The commander of the GAULA anti-kidnapping groups has numbered forced abductions for recruitment purposes at about 6,000. [17ds]

B.32 The Colombian Institute for Family welfare has estimated (in February 2000) that there are around 3,000 minors still active in Colombia's insurgent organisations, with 2,000 under arms. [17ah] The army has estimated 4,000 minors involved. [17w] The army reforms of July 1999 have imposed a minimum recruitment age, ensuring minors are not combatants. [17ah,17s]

B.33 The paramilitary groups, primarily the AUC, are using child combatants, and in July 2001, raided a youth detention centre, abducting and recruiting from the inmates. [18cm]

5C. HUMAN RIGHTS: OTHER ISSUES

i) Freedom of Political Association

C.1 The citizens of Colombia have a democratic right to vote in secret ballot elections which have to date been regarded as fair and open. Presidential elections take place every four years. Public employees are not allowed to engage in any political campaigning but they are allowed to vote with the exception of the military. Officially political parties are not subject to government interference. [3d] The high level of violence prevalent in Colombia has had a profound effect on political life with freely elected officials often forced to leave the country because of death threats. [3d]

Local Elections, 29 October 2000

C.2 Political system and country in turmoil after the announcement of US military aid and leading up to the local elections of October 2000. [11ap] Initially reported as six, eight Liberal Party members went missing, were suspected as kidnapped, and then later released after the elections by AUC paramilitaries. [11ap,17jg,17jn]

C.3 Pre-election tension leading up to the municipal elections of 29 October was responsible for the murder of 20 mayoral candidates, and the withdrawal of dozens of other candidates. Of the 1,089 municipalities, threats to candidates were registered in over half. The violence however is less than in 1997. [11ar,17jf]

C.4 There were reports of interference in the elections. FARC burned ballot papers from 79 polling stations in Narino Department. [17je] In Putumayo, FARC and the paramilitaries nominally allowed voting to go ahead, though the Mayor of San Vicente del Caguan accused FARC of pressuring voters not to support traditional parties. [17jf,17jh] The Army has accused FARC of forcibly removing ballot boxes in Santander and Caqueta Departments. [17jf]

C.5 The election results were held to be a defeat for the Conservatives, with many local losses. Most commentators view the local elections as being a protest vote on the national government's, especially the president's performance. The Liberal party gained seats, and have begun talking of having "majorities" over the government. The indigenous minority candidate, Floro Tunubala, in Cauca department, won to become the governor, and thus the first governor of indigenous background. [17jj,17jl,17jm]

Union Patriotica (UP)

C.6 The Union Patriotica (UP), set up in 1985, has lost hundreds and possibly thousands of members and supporters and endured considerable repression for a small opening in the political system. [6b] This campaign was initially precipitated by the Medellin Cartel after the UP was formed as part of a 1985 peace accord that permitted several thousand guerrillas to turn in their weapons in exchange for participation in a legal political party. [3c] Between 1985 and 1987 a campaign of assassination of UP members resulted in an estimated 450 deaths [2a] More recent reports estimate that 3,500-4,000 members of UP have been murdered since its foundation in 1985. [7a]

C.7 Particular incidents have included the following. In October 1997, the Prosecuting Attorney's Human Rights Unit formally charged two army Sergeants, Hernando Medina Camacho and Gusto Gil Zuniga Labrador, and paramilitary leader Carlos Castano with the 1994 killing of the leader of the UP, Senator Manuel Vargas Cepeda. The two sergeants remained in preventative detention, while Castano was tried in absentia. UP leader, Senator Hernan Motta, Cepeda's successor, left the country with his family in October, following increasing threats to their safety. [3c]

C.8 In 1996 the UP brought a complaint before the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) charging the government with "action or omission" in what they termed "political genocide" against their party and the Communist Party. [3d] In 1998 there was no progress regarding the UP party's complaint to the IAHCR that charged the Colombian government with "action or omission" in what the UP termed "political genocide" against the UP and the Communist Party. The government and the UP continued without success in their efforts to reach an amicable solution under the authority of the IAHCR. [3d]

C.9 The government on 6 June 2000 announced that, in compliance its commitments to the Organisation of American states (OAS) it was creating a special protection scheme for the members of UP and for the Colombian Communist Party. The personal protection component is being handled by the DAS under a programme already agreed between DAS and PCC-PU. A new committee, the Committee for Regulation and Risk Assessment, is handling humanitarian aid and the protection of offices and residences. It fully meets the recommendations of the IAHCR. [17cy]

C.10 Since 1999, the UP has faded from any position of political significance, and has not featured as being active in any news reports.

C.11. On 29 April 2000, FARC launched a clandestine political movement. The Bolivarian Movement for a New Colombia will operate in secret for the time being, as opposed to the Union Patriotica. There appear to be no plans to contest elections any time soon. The party is headed by Alfonso Cano. FARC is looking to the new movement to draw in peasants, workers, and other underprivileged Colombians. It is held to be, by Cano, a mechanism for ushering in the socialist revolution: "As revolutionaries, we would like the path to revolution to be as least painful as possible." Others have seen it as a mechanism of agitation, to complement recruitment up to 35,000 FARC members. [17bs,17bu]

C.12 In addition to the UP officials murdered over the years, the office of the High Commissioner for Peace estimated that 1,143 civil and political leaders of other parties were killed between 1990 and 1995. [3d]

C.13 On 29 April 2000, the FARC announced the creation of a new political party, the Movimiento Bolivariano por la Nueva Colombia (MBNC) – Boliviarian Movement for a New Colombia. [3h,17bu,17bs,17eh] News reports stated that there were no plans to integrate the party into the mainstream political process or to contest elections. [17bs] FARC leader Marulanda announced that the party would operate secretly. [3h,17bs] Further, Marulanda stated "The FARC, the army of the people, will be (the movement's) guarantee against extermination" meaning that the movement should be viewed as a political front of an armed guerrilla movement, as opposed to the UP who renounced the armed struggle in 1985. [17bs] The Colombian army view the movement as part of a two-pronged offensive, the second being armed mobilisation, with a view to launching an offensive to take power. [17bu]

Other Parties

C.14 In August 1997, the guerrilla group ELN abducted and killed Liberal Party Senator Jorge Cristo Shaiun in Cucuta, Norte de Santander department. A unit of the ELN reportedly accepted responsibility for the murder and threatened to kill other political figures in North Santander. In September 1997, five men were arrested in connection with the killing. [12c] In August 2000, the opposition Liberal Party found that its leaders were declared as military targets by the FARC and the ELN for their perceived involvement in Plan Colombia. [17fg,17fq] Previously in May 2000, however, two factions of pro- and anti- Plan Colombia had agreed days before that they would produce a statement setting out point by point the Liberal Party's stance to President Pastrana's referendum agenda. Differences could not be settled and a split was soon deemed inevitable, with the Party expelling Pastrana supporters a few days later. [17bw,17by] Horacio Serpa, a leader of the Liberal Party has also criticised the military component of the Plan in late July 2000, asking the government to emphasis reconstruction of the country rather than military action. [17em]

C.15 Ten mayors have been killed between January and November 1999, a fact highlighted by one particular case on 7 November . [16bf] Previously, on 29 October, 700 mayors at a Mayors For Peace summit had decried their lack of "minimum security" . [16ay] Five hundred municipalities were held to come under the sway of the rebels in the near future [16ay] The ELN threatened 500 mayors, mainly from the Narino, Putumayo, and Caqueta Departments, in late April 2000. [17bp] On 30 May 2000, the mayor of El Copey municipality, Cesar Department was shot along with his assistant. [17cp] In the year 2000, 130 public servants were killed. The first mayor to be killed in 2001 was shot on 18 January by FARC. [18j]

C.16 There are no legal restrictions, and few practical ones, on the participation of women or minorities in the political process. However, they are under-represented in official and party positions. Indigenous people and those of African descent are also under-represented in government and politics; 2 of 102 Senate seat are reserved for indigenous representatives; in 1993 a law that set aside two seats for citizens of African descent was declared unconstitutional in September 1996 by the Constitutional Court. [3d,3h]

ii) Freedom of Speech and Press

C.17 Both Colombian and international journalists typically work in an atmosphere of threats and intimidation. Fearing for their safety, journalists often refrain from publishing or airing stories counter to the interests of paramilitary groups, guerrillas or narcotics traffickers. Unknown assailants were reported to have murdered at least 13 journalists during 1998, although not all the murders apparently were related to the journalists' work. Oscar Garcia, sports reporter for Bogota's second leading daily newspaper, El Espectador, was murdered on 23 February 1999, the day before he was to meet with representatives of the Prosecutor General's office, apparently to discuss organised crime links that he had uncovered to the bullfighting industry. [3d]

C.18 On 16 April, Nelson Carvajal, a radio announcer and a schoolteacher, was killed in front of his school in Pitalito, Huila department. His killing was apparently in retaliation for his charges of corruption against a former Pitalito mayor. On 19 May 1999, radio and television journalist Bernabe Cortes, who was rumoured to have links to organised crime, was murdered in Cali. On 14 August 1999, Luz Amparo Jimenez, a television reporter and coordinator of the Cesar and La Guajira department chapters of "Redepaz" (an NGO), was murdered in front of her home in Valledupar. She recently criticised local police links to paramilitary groups and regularly covered the plight of displaced persons in the region. According to Pais Libre, 16 journalists were kidnapped during the year. Most of the incidents appeared to have been related to journalists' work and aimed at intimidation. [3d]

C.19 In January 2001, the Paris-based World Association of Newspapers ascribed 10 of the 53 killings of journalists worldwide in the year 2000 to Colombia. [18n] In 2001-02, the Colombian press continued to operate in a climate of violence and intimidation. A number of journalists were killed whilst others continued to work in an atmosphere of threats and intimidation, in some instances from local officials, but primarily form paramilitary groups and guerrillas. [3i] The French NGO Reporters without Borders (Reporters Sans Frontieres) has also identified the paramilitary members, the FARC and the ELN as the worst aggressors against the press. [18dy] It reported "violence against the press is basically carried out by the armed groups, especially the AUC. In addition because of pressure from FARC and ELN in several regions, freedom of the press is non-existent." [18dy] Reporters without Borders (RSF) has also named Carlos Castano, Manual Marulanda and Nicolas Rodriguez Bautista, leaders of the AUC, FARC and ELN, respectively, on list of the 39 most dangerous predators of press freedom in the world. [18cd] In November 2001, the correspondents and photographers Cristina Castro, Oscar Torres, German Arcos and Alfonso Padro were forced to leave the city of Pasto in Narino Department following threats on their lives by AUC. [18dz] On 19 January 2002 a sports radio commentator was found stabbed to death in Bogota and on 23 January a newspaper photographer was reported killed in Colombia. [22i]

C.20 The trend of media ownership continued, with large news firms purchasing small, previously independent newspapers. Wealthy families or groups associated with one or the other of two dominant political parties also continued to expand their holdings of news media, and regional firms continued to purchase local news media outlets. Although the press remained generally free, these trends in news media ownership tended to narrow the range of political viewpoints offered. [3d]

C.21 Despite an attempt by some members of Congress to abolish it, the National Television Commission continued to oversee television programming throughout the year. Detractors charged that it was susceptible to political influence. [3d]

C.22 In May 2001, the Colombian government refuted that it was increasingly pressuring the press to take lines favourable to the government. It opened up a momentary debate about press freedom. [18bz]

C.23 Academic freedom is assured and is respected by the State. The university campuses are occasionally the scenes of assassinations by paramilitaries or by rebel groups. On 4 May 1999, Hernan Henao, a professor at the University of Antioquia researching the situation of displaced people, was murdered, "apparently by right-wing paramilitaries". It has lead to a number of related murders, attributed to the AUC.the rector of the University of Antioquia has met with Carlos Castano, leader of the AUC, and representatives of the ELN and the EPL to plead for the university's neutrality. FARC had likewise been contacted by letter in November 1998 but had failed to respond. [20ac]

iii) Freedom of Assembly

C.24 The Colombian constitution provides for the freedom of peaceful assembly and association. Public meetings and demonstrations usually proceed without interference from the authorities except on occasions where they determine that there is imminent danger to public order. Permits are required for demonstrations and the U.S. State Department Report for 1996 suggested that officials responsible for the issue of these permits have been put under pressure to discriminate against groups that organised to criticise the President. Demonstrations do not always pass off peacefully. In July, August and September 1996 an estimated 80,000 to 150,000 coca cultivators and field workers mobilized to impede Government counternarcotics operations. Confrontations resulted and although in general soldiers did not employ lethal force against the protestors, some protestors were killed and abuses were reported. [3a]

C.25 A major strike on 2 September lasted for two days. The main reason behind the general strike has been the implementation of drastic public spending austerity measures in the midst of a recession and a general inflation rate of 10 percent p.a. . [16l] 65 people were killed in associated violence [16l] At least one rebel group, the ELN, was involved in the strike. [16k] There was further industrial unrest in October [16aj]; and the Pan-American highway was blocked again on 1 November. [16bc]

C.26 The economy is in the worst recession since the 1930s. For the first time in decades, no growth was experienced, indeed, shrinking by 5.8% in first quarter in 1999 . [16a] Coffee output slumped by 28.5%, and imports had to be undertaken in order to meet export quota commitments. [16u] Unemployment is currently running at about 20% of the working population. [16a] Industrial unrest included a 10 day strike by road hauliers in January / February 2000, after pressing for a 20% increase in cargo transit rates. [17ad] Recovery from the recession is expected to be slow. Export earnings are expected to pick up in 2000, but consumer confidence is held to be low. [17gz]

C.27 Public debt is set to increase (and did increase) in 2001 through increased government borrowings. This is to facilitate part of Plan Colombia and is a 15.6 percent increase on the year 2000. The Colombian government is under tight constraints to accord with a $2.7 billion loan from the IMF, and has been implementing ways to cut deficits. Such measures include a 6.2 percent pay offer to public sector employees (current inflation rate of 10 percent), privatisation of 20 state enterprises possibly entailing layoffs of about 5000 workers, a tax system restructuring. [17fi,17gz]

C.28 A restructuring of central government grants to local government in June 2001, led to protests by healthcare and education workers' unions. [18ce] 300,000 teachers and 90,000 healthcare workers were involved. The restructuring was a cost-cutting demand of the IMF. [18ca] In another dispute, peasant organisations and agricultural workers' unions blocked main highways in protest, in August 2001. They were concerned about rising food prices and falling wages for coffee plantation workers. Police broke the barricades with tear gas attacks. [18cu]

iv) Freedom of the Individual

C.29 The 1991 Constitution includes provisions to prevent illegal detention. In practice, however, individuals are subject to arbitrary arrest and detention in Colombia, and prolonged pretrial detention periods are a problem. The latter may be attributed in part to the overburdened judicial system. [3e]

C.30 The Colombian government has been operating under states of emergency for 36 of the past 44 years. These circumstances enabled the government to rule by decree in broad areas of the country and this often limited due process rights and freedom of movement. Curfews have been imposed and check-points and safe conduct passes have been required in some areas . [3b] A typical state of emergency was declared by the governor of Tolima Department on 11 May 2000, after intense fighting, since the 28 April 2000, between the FARC fronts and the AUC in a large area of Southern Tolima. [17cc]

C.31 In general a judicial order is required before authorities may enter a private home and to authorise telephone monitoring or the interception of mail. [3b]

v) Freedom to Travel / Internal Flight

C.32 In general there are no restrictions on citizens' rights to travel either domestically or abroad. Travel may be restricted when police or military operations are in place in particular areas, however, and an outsider may only enter an Indian reserve by invitation. [3b]

C.33 5,000 Colombians crossed the border into Venezuela to escape the threat of paramilitary violence in North Santander, including a first wave of around 2,200 in one week in June 1999. Later that month, the Colombian and Venezuelan governments agreed to establish a joint mechanism to prevent and handle any future exodus. They are expected to establish the mechanism with the help of appropriate agencies, including international humanitarian organisations. [15r]

C.34 It was reported in July 1999 that, for the first time and because of the escalating violence and deepening financial crisis, wealthy and middle-class Colombians are exiting the country in large numbers. The US Embassy in Bogota was described as inundated with visa applications. An estimated 65,000 Colombians left the country in the first 4 months of 1999. [15ad]

Internal Flight

C.35 Colombia's topography splits the country into very distinct regions and the people in this relatively sparsely populated country (31.4 per sq. km) are closely identified with those regions. [2a] Many of those deemed to have been displaced simply leave their plots and/or villages and do not register with the authorities or NGOs out of a combination of fear and ignorance. There are parts of Colombia that may continue to be considered relatively safe (where there are no coca, oil or banana interests), but an individual may come to adverse attention merely by moving from one area to another. There are occasions when internal flight might solve an individual's problems but people do live in a state of fear and some of them may feel that they have little choice but to leave the country. [7a]

The Displaced Persons

C.36 The Colombian government has publicly recognised the gravity of the problem of displaced persons and is seeking solutions to it. No consensus exists regarding the exact number of internally displaced people (IDP's) as some persons are displaced more than once, and many displaced people do not register with the government or other entities. The observers, however, agree that there has been a significant increase in displacements over the past 3 years. [3i]

C.37 There was a sharp increase in the number of internally displaced people in 2001. According to a study by the local non-governmental organisation the Human Rights and Displacement Consultancy (CODHES) 39 people left their homes each hour to escape leftist rebels or far-right paramilitaries. [22r] CODHES announced that a total of 341,925 were displaced in 2001, which brings the total to 1.5 million since 1997. [22s] Most of them are from the countryside prowled by Marxist guerrillas, and by far-right paramilitary outlaws. [22r] Much of the problem has been blamed on rightist militia forces, who have been blamed for scores of massacres of peasants suspected of supporting leftist rebels. [22u]

C.38 By February 2002, clashes between paramilitary groups, the so-called Self-Defence Group of Magdalena and La Guajira and the United Self-Defence Groups of Colombia (AUC), on the slopes of the Santa Marta Sierra Nevada in Northern Colombia, had displaced 9000 people and led to the deaths of at least 10 people. [22v][22t] The U.S. State Department Report for 2001 also confirms that violence and instability in rural areas displaced between 275000 and 347000 civilians from their homes during this year. [3i]

C.39 Similar trends in population displacement have been evident in recent years. On 24 Janauary 2001, the number of people displaced for the year 2000 was officially placed at 126,000. Independent agencies put the figure at around 300,000. Sixty percent of the displacements were attributed to the actions of the paramilitaries. [18p] For 1999, CODHES reported armed groups displaced 288,000 people, with guerrillas blamed for 28 percent of cases, and unknown groups responsible for a further 16 percent. [11q]

C.40 1998 was one of the worst years for internal refugees in Colombia. It was reported on 29 November 1998 that almost a quarter of a million people were forced to flee their homes in the first nine months of 1998 to escape the political violence of Colombia's civil conflict. The report stated that this figure is equivalent to about 25 percent of the total number of displaced civilians officially reported in the last 10 years. CODHES claimed that 241,312 people from 48,000 separate families had abandoned their homes by the end of September 1998. It also claimed that Colombia's displaced people rarely live in refugee camps, except for brief periods immediately after leaving their homes, but stay with relatives elsewhere or flock to the shanty towns that ring Bogota and other large cities. [3d] The US State Department Report for 1998 stated that the total number of internally displaced citizens during 1995-98 probably exceeded 750,000. [3d] Between 8 million to 11.5 million people have relocated over the past 40 years, with a large unspecified contingent moving because of violence. [16b,1c]

State Protection of the Displaced Persons

C.41 Law 387 of 1997 is the legislation recognising the Colombian Government's responsibility to prevent forced displacement, and to provide protection for the forcibly displaced. Article 17 of this law provides for the direct access of those displaced to government social offers and particularly to social and health assistacne, education and rural and urban housing, and programmes for children, women and the elderly, in order to achieve socio-economic stability. [1j]

C.42 The government operates a card scheme for benefits that is fully transferable around the country. However the UNHCR alleges that refugees are targeted on the basis of the card. They call for its abandonment and greater access for international organisations to assist in administering relief. [1a,1b] Likewise, refugee camps / organised areas are targeted as well, creating a flee to shanty towns – known as "rings of misery" – around large cities. [1a]

C.43 Red de Solidaridad (the Social Solidarity Network) is the government agency responsible for co-ordination of provision of relief to the displaced persons and victims of the political violence. Following the end of the peace talks between the FARC and the government in February 2002, Red de Solidaridad has drawn up a National System for Integrated Assistance to Displaced Persons. [10i] This is a contingency plan designed to provide assistance in emergencies. The plan provides the local authorities at the municipal, district and departmental levels with the necessary mechanisms to offer relief and shelter to the displaced persons.

C.44 As part of this plan, on 13 March 2002, Red de Solidaridad announced that the Assistance for Displaced Persons Committees were set up in the Departments of Huila, Caqueta and Meta in order to carry out an assessment and analysis of the security situation and monitor the population movement. These committees have identified four hostels in Huila, seventeen in Meta and seven in Caqueta to be used as shelter in the event of mass displacement of persons. They have also organised food stores in these locations. [10i] In cities of Neiva, Villavicencio and Florencia too a number of hostels have been identified as suitable for hosting the displaced persons. [10i]

C.45 One commentator has suggested that the desplazados (the displaced) are a challenging issue for the security forces as much as the government. Firstly, the external flows of Colombians are causing border control problems. Secondly, the security forces are being obliged to reform to ensure sufficiency of protection is extended to displaced populations, as NGOs increasingly point to lapses and failures of protection, citing the massacres of Mapiripan (July 1997), Barrancabermeja (May 1998), and La Gabarra-Tibu (August 1999). [8d]

The Humanitarian Orders

C.46 In 2002, for the first time in Colombia, the national government has issued humanitarian orders to prevent and manage the forced displacement of people. [22t] This mechanism empowers the director of the Social Solidarity Network to order officials or agencies to take immediate action on forced displacements stemming from armed conflict. [22t] The orders are issued in specific urgent cases requiring immediate attention in order to guarantee the rights of those displaced. The official or agency that receives such orders will have to take immediate action, within 10 calendar days at latest. [22t]

C.47 The first humanitarian order was issued on 13 February 2002 and directed the governor of Notre de Santandar, in the Catatumbo region, to take necessary action to guarantee the health and education of the displaced people. [22t] The second humanitarian order seeks to resolve the serious displacement problems in Santa Marta, Magdalena Department, where approximately 10,000 people have abandoned their homes, fleeing confrontations among self-defence groups. [22t]

External Flight

C.48 DAS, reportedly in a September 2000 news report, have estimated that 2 million Colombians have left Colombia in the past three years. Over 1,000 people a day were leaving Colombia in the first half of year 2000, an increase of 35 percent on the same period in the previous year. [11m,17ff]

vi) Persecution under the terms of the 1951 United Nations' Convention relating to the Status of Refugees.

C.49 There is no convincing evidence of any organised, systematic persecution by the State of individuals or specific groups in Colombia. Human rights reports do, however, indicate widespread internal conflict and high levels of forced disappearances and extrajudicial killings by government forces, paramilitary groups and guerrillas. [3h]

ANNEX A: COLOMBIA: A GUIDE TO POLITICAL, GUERRILLA, PARAMILITARY AND TRADE UNION ORGANISATIONS AND GROUPS

1. POLITICAL PARTIES

Partido Liberal (PL – Liberal Party)

Established 1815; the PL has provided more political leaders than any other party. In the 1994 Presidential elections, Ernesto Samper Pizano, the PL candidate, was elected with 50.9% of the vote in the second round; the PL won 56 seats in the Senate and 88 seats in the House of Representatives.

Partido Conservador (PC – Conservative Party)

Established 1849; 2.9m members. There are internal divisions within the party: in 1990-94, the Social Conservative Party (PSC), as the PC was then known, split with the Nueva Fuerza Democratica (NFD), led by Andres Pastrana Arango, participating in President Gaviria's administration and the PSC and the Movimiento de Salvacion Nacional (MSN), led by Alvaro Gomez Hurtado until he was murdered in October 1995. In the 1994 Presidential elections, the PSC's candidate, Pastrana, won 49.1% of the vote. The PSC won 20 seats in the Senate and 40 in the House of Representatives. The MSN won 2 seats in the House.

Union Patriotica (UP – Patriotic Union)

Established 1985 by Farc and the Partido Comunista Colombiano (PCC) as a means of enabling former guerrillas and other Marxists to enter the political process. UP did not nominate a candidate for the 1994 Presidential elections due to the assassination of two of its leaders who had contested the Presidential elections in 1987 and in 1990. It currently has one Senator but no representatives in the Lower House. President: Antonio Jose Puentes; Vice -Presidents: Motta and Aida Abella (in exile in Europe).

Alianza Democratica (AD-M19 – Democratic Alliance (of 19 April)

Established 1990, AD-M19 originated in the Movimiento 19 de Abril (M19) guerrilla group, which was the military wing of ANAPO. In the May 1994 Presidential elections AD-M19 won 1 seat in the House of Representatives (Yaneth Suarez). President: Gloria Quiceno.

Partido de Esperanza, Paz y Libertad (EPL – Hope, Peace and Freedom)

This was established from the guerrilla group EPL (Popular Liberation Army) in March 1991 when it laid down its arms. Party leader: Bernardo Gutierrez Zuluaga.

Partido Comunista de Colombia (PCC – Communist Party of Colombia)

Established 1930. The PCC joined with the FARC to establish the Union Patriotica in 1985, but it has remained an independent organisation. Secretary- General: Jaime Caycedo

Movimiento Unitario Metapolitico (MUM, Metapolitical Unitarian Movement)

Established 1985; populist occultist party; Leader: Regina Betancur de Liska, the party's candidate in the 1994 Presidential elections, she obtained 64, 871 votes (1.8%).

Alianza Nacional Popular (ANAPO – National Popular Alliance)

Established 1970. ANAPO became the main opposition party in Congress in 1970-74. Some of its members then broke away and formed an armed wing, M19 de Abril with dissident members of FARC. Samuel Moreno now represents the party in the Senate.

2. OTHER PARTIES

Movimiento Obrero Izquierdo Revolucionario (MOIR – Left-Wing Revolutionary Workers' Movement). Left-wing workers' movement; Maoist. 1 Senator. Secretary- General: Hector Valencia

Frente por la Unidad del Pueblo (FUP – United People's Front).

Extreme left-wing front comprising socialists and Maoists.

Movimiento Unido por Colombia (or Colombia Unido) (MUC – Movement for Colombian Unity). Left-wing group allied to the UP. Leader: Adalberto Carvajal.

Movimiento Nacional Progresista (MNP – National Progressive Movement)

Democracia Cristiana (Christian Democracy). Established 1964; Christian Democrat party; 10,000 members; President: Juan A Polo Figueroa; Secretary – General: Diego Arango Osorio

Partido Democrata Cristiano (PDC – Christian Democrat Party).

Banned from participating in the March 1986 elections because of fraudulent electoral registration, it allied itself in 1990 to AD-M19. President: Luis Jaime Pabon Mahecha.

Movimiento Nacional Conservador (MNC – National Conservative Movement).

Partido Nacional Cristiano (PNC – National Christian Party).

Union Cristiana (UC – Christian Union).

Mujeres para la Democracia (MD – Women for Democracy).

Established 1991; women's party; Leader: Angela Cuevas de Dolmetsch.

Partido Socialista de los Trabajadores (PST – Socialist Workers' Party). Established 1978 by members of a former Trotskyite party, the Bloque Socialista, it is led by Maria Socorro Ramirez, who contested the 1978 Presidential elections.

3. STUDENT GROUPS

Juventudes Inconformes de Colombia (JIC, Disaffected Youth of Colombia), which called for the elimination of drugs dealers and kidnappers.

Movimiento Revolucionario Estudiantil (MRE, Student Revolutionary Movement).

NB: It is not clear how many of the 'Other parties' are still registered and how active and effective they are.

4. GUERRILLA GROUPS

Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia (FARC – Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia)

Originating in peasant self-defence groups in the 1950s, it emerged in 1964 as the pro-Moscow armed wing of the Partido Comunista Colombiano (PCC). It overshadowed the PCC and became an independent organisation, ostensibly, at least initially, supporting the interests of the poor (it called for example, for agrarian reform, nationalisation of foreign enterprises, a 50% reduction in land and property taxes and a 40% reduction in public utility charges). In 1983, the FARC accepted the government's offer of a general amnesty to guerrilla groups and a partial cease-fire, which was formalised in March 1984. The following year, the FARC joined with democratic left-wing groups, including its original sponsor, the PCC, in forming the UP. The cease-fire agreement was renewed in March 1986, but, following the government's failure to guarantee the safety of UP election candidates, the FARC returned, by late 1987, to a policy of "total insurrection". In 1997 FARC set out conditions for entering into peace talks with the government: the dismantling of what it described as the national security doctrine, paramilitary structures and legal self-defence groups (CONVIVIRS); suspension of special public order zones; and the introduction of a number of unspecified democratic reforms.

Leader: Manuel Marulanda Velez

Ejercito de Liberacion Nacional (ELN – Army of National Liberation)

Established in July 1964 by Fabio Vasquez Castano, a student leader ideologically linked to the Movimiento de Obreros, Estudiantes y Campesinos (MOEC – Movement of Workers, Students and Peasants), Colombia's first revolutionary group. A Marxist, pro-Cuban movement, its objective was the "conquest of power for the popular classes". A predominantly student and middle class movement, with strong ties to the University of Santander in Bucaramanga, it first operated mainly in rural areas in north-eastern Colombia. It also had links with guerrilla forces in El Salvador, Peru and Venezuela. Leader: Manuel Perez Martinez, a Spanish-born ex-priest. The ELN previously included the Corriente de Renovacion Socialista (CRS), Frente Simon Bolivar and Frente Antonio Narino but these ceased hostilities (CRS won 2 seats in the House of Representatives in the 1994 elections).

Ejercito Popular de Liberacion (EPL – Popular Liberation Army)

Established in 1967 by the Partido Comunista Colombiano (Marxist-Leninist), it was the first Colombian group with a Maoist orientation. Made up of peasants, workers and students, it advocated total nationalisation and confiscation of all important industrial and agricultural enterprises. In 1984, having been inactive for some time, EPL came to an agreement with the government and initially abandoned the armed struggle (but not definitely until 1991). A dissident group, the EPL-D, numbering about 120, is still active in Guajira, Santander, Magdalena, Risaralda and Narino.

5. OTHER GROUPS

Jaime Bateman Cayon (JBC) Established in 1989, when the vast majority of M-19 supporters abandoned the armed struggle, the JBC is named after an M-19 leader killed in 1983, who, two years before his death, had emerged as a moderate leader favouring a constitutional approach but who then repudiated a peace agreement with the government. The JBC is now led by Alberto Morales Restrepo and Alonso Grajales Lemus. The JBC first aligned themselves with the ELN, and later the FARC, although it has operated essentially on its own. In 1995, it was the group responsible for the kidnapping of the British Defence Attache's Assistant in Bogota for 4 months.

Nuevo Frente Revolucionario del Pueblo (New Revolutionary Popular Front). Established 1986; faction of M19; was active in Cundinamarca region.

Partido Revolucionario de los Trabajadores (PRT – Workers' Revolutionary Party). It abandoned the armed struggle in January 1991 and joined AD-M19.

Patria Libre (Free Homeland) Established 1985.

Frente Ricardo Franco (Ricardo Franco Front). Emerged in the mid-1980s as a particularly violent, dissident group within the FARC totally opposed to peace talks, which even carried out attacks on the FARC leadership. Leader: Giver Delgado and Jose Fedor Rey.

Comando Quintin Lame. An indigenous organisation active in Cauca in the 1980s, it laid down its weapons in May 1991.

Movimiento Independiente Revolucionario – Comandos Armados Revolucionarios (MIR-COAR, Independent Revolutionary Movement/Revolutionary Armed Commandos). Leaders: Mario Gutierrez and Julian Guevara Zapata. It signed a preliminary peace agreement with the government in January 1997.

Coordinadora Nacional Guerrillera (CNG – National Guerrilla Coordination) Established in late 1985 by FARC, ELN, M19, EPL, Patria Libre, Frente Ricardo Franco and the Comando Quintin Lame and was led by Giver Delgado. In 1986, the CNG reached agreement with the Movimiento Revolucionario Tupac Amaru (Peru), the "Alfaro Vive" Carajo! (Ecuador and other guerrilla groups in Panama and Venezuela to launch the Batallon America as the projected core of a Bolivarian army composed of guerrillas from countries liberated by Simon Bolivar in the 19th century. In 1987, the Coordinadora Guerrillera Simon Bolivar (CGSB – Simon Bolivar Guerrilla Coordination), became the organisation in Colombia responsible for negotiating with the government. The CGSB is still in being as an umbrella organisation.

15 other minor guerrilla groups have also been identified, operating recently but thought no longer active:

Raices por Colombia (RPC), break-away faction of M19 operating in Cali.

M26, another break-away faction of M19, about 40 strong operating in the coffee belt.

Ejercito Republicano Independentista del Caribe (ERICA). Established 1993, a 70 strong separatist group based in the main cities along the Atlantic coast.

Comandos Revolucionarios Populares (CRP). Established 1992, active in Bolivar and Sucre, supported by ELN.

Ejercito Revolucionario Guevarista (ERG). Established 1993, a 100 strong break-away faction of the ELN, active in Choco, Risaralda and Antioquia.

Organizacion Revolucionaria Pueblo Armado (ORPA). Established 1992, about 30 strong, active in Risaralda, Caldas and Antioquia.

Comando Sur Alvaro Lucue Chocue (AUCH), 30 strong break-away faction of Quintin Lame, defending ethnic minority rights in Tolima and Cauca.

Fuerzas Populares (or Frente Popular) de Liberacion Nacional (FPLN), 40 strong group operating in the Medellin since 1994. It is said to consist of ELN and EPL dissidents opposed to peace talks.

Organizacion para la Liberacion del Putumayo (OLP). Established 1993, 20-30 strong independent movement.

Comando Miliciano Revolucionario (CMR), 30 strong urban guerrilla group operating near Medellin.

Fuerzas de Integracion Bolivariana (FIB), 45 strong dissident ELN group, active in Cundinamarca and Pereira since early 1995.

Comando Armado Popular (CAP), urban militia group based in Medellin.

Ejercito Revolucionario del Pueblo (ERP), another break-away faction of the ELN with 350 members, operates in Tolima and Quindio.

Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias Indigenistas del Pacifico (FARIP). Established 1994, and 80 strong group.

Movimiento Jorge Eliecer Gaitan (JEGA). Established 1987, another break-away faction of the ELN with 350 members, operates in Tolima and Quindio.

Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias Indigenistas del Pacifico (FARIP). Established 1994, and 80 strong group.

Movimiento Jorge Eliecer Gaitan (JEGA). Established 1987, another break-away faction of the ELN, operates in Cundinamarca, Risaralda, Quindio, Valle and Caldas.

6. PARAMILITARY GROUPS – Self-Defence Units (Autodefensas) organised mainly by property owners.

Autodefensas Campesinas de Cordoba y Uraba (ACCU – Peasant Self-Defence Groups of Cordoba and Uraba).

Established 1981. Led by Charles Castano, it is thought to be about 2,000 strong and operates in the Uraba area of Antioquia and in various towns in Cordoba, as well as in the south of Bolivar and Santander. In April 1997, it was reported that the ACCU was joining forces with similar groups in Magdalena Medio and the eastern plains to form the United Self-Defence Groups of Colombia (AUC).

Autodefensas de Victor Caranza (Victor Caranza's Self-Defence Group).

Caranza, the biggest emerald dealer in Colombia, and a large land and cattle owner, has various groups of 20-50 men operating in Casanare and in Puerto Lopez.

Autodefensas del Magdalena Medio (Self-Defence Group of Magdalena Medio).

Established 1982 by the army. It has 120 men and the support of some 200 peasant farmers.

Autodefensas de Patevaca (Self-Defence Group of Patevaca, Cundinamarca).

Established 1982 by a group that used to belong to the Autodefensas del Magdalena Medio, the two groups have worked together in the past three years. The Patevaca group has 70 men and 300 peasant farmers in support.

Autodefensas de Doradal (Self-Defence Group of Doradal, Antioquia).

Established 1991, it separated from the Puerto Boyaca group. Led by Emilio Isaza Arango, it has some 60 men. Previously looked after coca production facilities, but thee have been destroyed.

Autodefensas de Sincelejo (Self-Defence Group of Sincelejo, Sucre)

Led by ex-Senator Miguel Angel Nuleamin, it has some 20 men and is independent of the Cordoba-Uraba paramilitaries, but they occasionally help each other.

Autodefensas de Caucasia, de Taraza y de Puerto Berrio (Self-Defence Group of Caucasia, Taraza and Puerto Berrio).

These groups, all in Antioquia, are led by local farmers and businessmen and each has some 20-25 men.

Autodefensas de Planeta Rica (Self-Defence Groups of Planeta Rica). Operates in Cordoba, led by 2 cattle ranchers with some 15 men.

Guaviare Front. Claimed responsibility for the torture and massacre of 30 people in Mapirian, Meta province, on 20 July 1997.

Martyrs of Kidnapping. Believed to have been established by local drugs-traffickers, the ACCU having denied links with them.

7. OTHER GROUPS

Alianza Anticomunista Americana. Established 1970s.

Norte Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Leader: Hernan Gerald.

Muerte a Secuestradores (MAS – death to Kidnappers).

Established 1982, with the aim of eradicating guerrillas.

Perseguidos por Pablo Escobar (PEPE – Persons Persecuted by Pablo Escobar). Established 1993 with the aim of taking revenge on Escobar's family and associates for their crimes.

Movimiento de Restauracion Nacional (MORENA – National Restoration Movement). Established 1989, MORENA is sometimes classified as a political group with links to right-wing self-defence forces. Leader: Ivan Roberto Duque.

Legion Aguilas Blancas (White Eagles Legion).

CONVIVIRS (Associations and Cooperatives for Rural and Urban Security). Legal bodies, established by the government in April 1995. 530 associations were in being by February 1997. In November 1997 the Constitutional Court determined that the Convivir were a constitutional means for combating guerrillas, but that the Convivir must relinquish rifles, machine guns and other restricted weaponry in their possession.

ANNEX B: ACRONYMS

ACCU – Autodefensas Campesinas de Cordoba y Uraba (Peasant Self-Defence Groups of Cordoba and Uraba)

ADM-19 – Alianza Democratica (Democratic Alliance)

ANAPO – Alianza Nacional Popular (National Popular Alliance)

AUCH – Comando Sur Alvaro Lucue Chocue

CAP – Comando Armado Popular

CCJ – Colombian Commission of Jurists

CGSB – Coordinadora Guerillera Simon Bolivar

CMR – Comando Miliciano Revolucionario

CNG – Coordinadora Nacional Guerrillera (National Guerrilla Coordination)

CRP – Comandos Revolcionarios Populares

DAS – Department of Administrative Security

ELN – Ejercito de Liberacion Nacional (Army of National Liberation)

EPL – Ejercito Popular de Liberacion (Popular Liberation Army)

EPL – Established from the above in March 1992. Partido de Esperanza, Pay y Libertad (Hope, Peace and Freedom)

ERG – Ejercito Revolucionario Guevarista

ERICA – Ejercito Republicano Independentista del Caribe

ERP – Ejercito Revolucionario del Pueblo

FARC – Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia)

FARIP – Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias Indigenistas del Pacifico

FIB – Fuerzas de Integracion Bolivariana

FPLN – Fuerzas Populares (or Frente Popular) de Liberacion Nacional

FUP – Frente por la Unidad del Pueblo (United People's Front)

IACHR – Inter-American Commission on Human Rights

JBC – Jaime Bateman Cayon

JEGA – Movimiento Jorge Eliecer Gaitan

JIC – Juventudes Inconformes de Colombia (Disaffected Youth of Colombia)

MAS – Muerte a Secuestadores (Death to Kidnappers)

M-19 – Movimento 19 de Abril

MD – Mujeres para la Democracia (Women for Democracy)

M26 – A break-away faction of M19

MIR-COAR- Movimiento Independiente Revolucionario – Comandos Armados Revolucionarios (Independent Revolutionary Movement/ Revolutionary Armed Commandos)

MNC – Movimiento Nacional Conservador (National Conservative Movement)

MNP – Movimiento Nacional Progresista (National Progressive Movement

MOIR – Movimiento Obrero Izquierdo Revolucionario (Left-wing Revolutionary Workers' Movement)

MORENA – Movimiento de Restauracion Nacional (National Restoration Movement)

MRE – Movimiento Revolucionario Estudiantil (Student Revolutionary Movement)

MUC – Movimiento Unido por Colombia (Movement for Colombian Unity)

MUM – Movimiento Unitario Metapolitico (Metapolitical Unitarian Movement)

NGOs – Non-governmental organisations

OLP – Organizacion para la Liberacion del Putumayo

ORPA – Organizacion Revolucionaria Pueblo Armado

PC – Partido Conservador (Conservative Party)

PCC – Partido Comunista de Colombia (Communist Party of Colombia)

PDC – Partido Democrata Cristiano (Christian Democrat Party)

PEPE – Perseguidos por Pablo Escobar (Persons persecuted by Pablo Escobar)

PL – Partido Liberal (Liberal Party)

PNC – Partido Nacional Cristiano (National Christian Party)

 PRT – Partido Revolucionario de los Trabajadores (Workers' Revolutionary Party)

PSR – Revolutionary Socialist Party

PST – Partido Socialista de los Trabajadores (Socialist Workers' Party)

RPC – Raices por Colombia

UC – Union Cristiana (Christian Union)

UNHCR – United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights

UNHRC – United Nations Human Rights Commission

UP – Union Patriotica (Patriotic Union)

ANNEX C: SOURCES/REFERENCES

[1] UNHCR related sources: –

1a. 21 October 1999, Refugees Daily, Colombia: Displaced Crisis Worsens.

1b. 6 October 1999, Refugees Daily, Colombia: Displaced need our support.

1c. 1-7 November 2001, Integration of the Human Rights of Women and the Gender Perspective, Report by the Special Rapporteur for the UN Commission on Human Rights

[2] General Country Reference Book Sources: –

2a. Europa World Year Book 1997, Colombia.

2b. South America, central America and the Caribbean 2002, 10th Edition

[3] US State Department Reports: –

3a. U.S. Department of State Report 1995. Colombia, Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 1995, released March 1996.

3b. U.S. Department of State Report 1997. Colombia, Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 1996, released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labour, 30 January 1997.

3c. U.S. Department of State Report 1998. Colombia Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 1997, released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labour,30 January 1998.

3d. U.S. Department of State Report 1999. Colombia Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 1998, released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labour, 26 February 1999.

3e. U.S. Department of State Report 2000. Colombia Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 1999, released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labour, 26 February 2000.

3f. 1 November 1999, US State Department, The Secretary's Open Forum "Colombia: What Are We Getting Into?"

3g. U.S. Department of State, Background Notes: Colombia, August 2000.

3h. U.S. Department of State Report 2001. Colombia Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 2000, released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labour, 26 February 2001.

3i. U.S. Department of State Report 2002. Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2001, released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labour, 4 March 2002.

[4] Amnesty International Publications: –

4a. Amnesty International article "Political Violence in Colombia", March 1994.

4b. Amnesty International article "Nowhere to Hide", April 1994.

4e. Amnesty International Report, February 1999.

4f. Amnesty International 63/99 Fear for safety/abduction, 24 May 1999

4g. Amnesty International News release AMR 23/44/97, 30 June 1997; British petroleum Risks Fuelling Human Rights Crisis Through Military Training

4h. Amnesty International Report, June1999.Enough IS enough Repression of Human rights Defenders. AMR 23/48/99 Update no. 2

4i. Amnesty International Report, 19 May 2000. Protection of human rights defenders: One step forward, three steps back. AMR 23/22/2000

[5] UK Newpaper reports: –

5a. 13 November 1999, the Guardian Weekend magazine, page 40 – 47, A war run on drugs.

5b 21 June 2000, Guardian, Awaiting the world's dawn chorus

[6] Academic Monographs and Articles: –

6a. 'Colombia – Inside the Labyrinth' by Jenny Pearce. Published (1990) by Latin American Bureau (Research and Action) Ltd., London.

6b Ecuador, The Galapagos & Colombia, J.P. Rathbone: Cadogan Guides, Chapter III. (1991)

6c. "Better lead than bread? A critical analysis of the U.S. Plan Colombia?" by Doug Stokes, published by Colombia Update, Independent Voices on Colombia: www.colombiaupdate.com/Members/DougStokes/BetterLead/view , accessed on 24/4/2002.

6d. Colombia, Fragmented Land, Divided Society, by Frank Safford and Marco Palacios, Oxford University Press 2002, Chapter 14.

[7] Information from the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office: –

7a. Letter and enclosures from Foreign and Commonwealth Office, September 1997.

7b. Letter from Foreign and Commonwealth Office dated 18 February 1994 on issue of Homosexuality in Colombia.

7c. Letter from the Foreign and Commonwealth Office dated 2 December 1998, advising of the split within EPL.

[8] General Periodical and Website Articles: –

8a. Swiss Review of World Affairs, Colombia: Guerrillas, Hit Squads and the Presidency, Gaupp, Peter, May 1997.

8b. Compton's Encyclopaedia Online, accessed 02/03/00, Contadora Group

8c. The New York Review of Books, Our new war in Colombia, Guillermoprieto, Alma,13 April 2000.

8d. Third World Quarterly, Civil-military relations in Colombia – a workable relationship or a case for fundamental reform? Watson, Cynthia A., 1 June 2000

8h. Colombia Update, Independent Voices on Colombia, Independents of Left and Right Triumph in Congressional Elections, 11 March 2002

[9] Human Rights Watch Publications: –

9b. Human Rights Watch World Report 1999

9e. Human Rights Watch Press Release, 5 February 2002, Colombia Fails Rights Test

9f. Human Rights Watch Briefing Paper, February 2002, Colombia Human Rights Certification III

9g. Human Rights Watch Press, 4 March 2002, FARC must release abducted presidential candidate.

[10] Colombian Government Publications: –

10a. The Colombia National Police website pages, accessed 27/3/2000

10b. The President of the Republic's website, News releases, 9 May 2001 (accessed 25/9/01), Social investment of Plan Colombia gets to Cundinamarca, Tolima and Botaca

10c. The President of the Republic's website, News releases, 28 June 2001 (accessed 25/9/01), 242 policemen and soldiers liberated in Meta

10d. The President of the Republic's website, News releases, 30 June 2001 (accessed 25/9/01), List of 26 soldiers and policement liberated in Granada (Antioquia)

10e. FARC liberate 32 policemen and soldiers in Urrao (Antioquia)

10f. The President of the Republic's website, News releases, 22 August 2001 (accessed 25/9/01) 1,200 men reinforce the August 7 operation in the East.

10g. The President of the Republic's website, News releases, 10 August 2001 (accessed 25/9/01), The Families in Action Program will cover 287 municipalities in the country.

10h. The President of the Republic's website, News releases, 21 August 2001 (accessed 25/9/01), The "August 7 Operation" is also against right wing illegal militias: two dead

10i. Noticias de la Red de Solidaridad Social website, Plan de contingencia para desplazamientors mas..,13 March 2002. (For the certified translation see below:)

• Solidarity Network News, Massive Displacement Contingency Plan, 13 March 2002

10j. Fundacion Pais Libre Website, 26 March 2002, 342 Secuestros en Primer Bimestre del Ano, (342 kidnappings in the first two months of the year).

[11] Other news report (via website) sources: –

11a. 15 February 2000, BBC News Website, accessed 15/02/00, Colombian peace talks move to Italy.

11b. 16 February 2000, CNN.com News Website, accessed 16/02/00, Colombia drug production hits 'emergency' levels, US says.

11g. 12 January 2000, BBC News Website, accessed 16/02/00, Colombia rebels end New Year truce.

11i. 16 February 2000, BBC News Website, accessed 16/02/00, Colombian extortion reaches new heights.

11j. 2 January 2000, CNN.com News Website, accessed 4/01/00, Colombia says 975 combatants died in civil conflict in 1999.

11k. 5 November 1998, The Miami Herald, accessed 02/03/00, A strong arm in Colombia defense

11l. 7 September 2000, CNN.com News website, (accessed 8 September 2000), Kidnapping becomes a growth industry.

11m. (September 2000), Tales of Colombia series, CNN.com News website, (accessed 12 September 2000),

11n. (September 2000), Tales of Colombia series, CNN.com News website, (accessed 12 September 2000),

11o. 10 September 2000, CNN.com News website, (accessed 12 September 2000), Colombians take to the streets to appeal for peace.

11p. (September 2000), Tales of Colombia series, CNN.com News website, (accessed 12 September 2000), The dynamics of violence

11q. (September 2000), Tales of Colombia series, CNN.com News website, (accessed 12 September 2000), Peace and a piece of land

11r. (September 2000), Tales of Colombia series, CNN.com News website, (accessed 12 September 2000), Kidnapped: pinned by the sword and the wall

11s. (September 2000), Tales of Colombia series, CNN.com News website, (accessed 12 September 2000), Trapped in the city

11t. (September 2000), Tales of Colombia series, CNN.com News website, (accessed 12 September 2000), Seeds of hope in fields of war

11u. (September 2000), Tales of Colombia series, CNN.com News website, (accessed 12 September 2000), Between a machete and a revolver.

11v. 7 September 2000, BBC News Website, (accessed 13 September 2000), Colombian paramilitary claims business funding.

11w. 4 September 2000, BBC News Website, (accessed 13 September 2000), Colombian violence follows Clinton visit.

11y. 31 August 2000, BBC News Website, (accessed 18 September 2000), Colombia changes tactics in drugs war

11z. 31 August 2000, BBC News Website, (accessed 18 September 2000), Analysis: Colombia prepares to tackle rebels

11aa. 23 August 2000, BBC News Website, (accessed 18 September 2000), Anti-drugs plan threatens Colombian peasants.

11ad. 18 September 2000, CNN.com News website, (accessed 18 September 2000), ELN rebels blamed for kidnapping 40 in Colombia.

11ag. 4 October 2000, BBC News Website, (accessed 19 October 2000), Red Cross suspends work in Colombia.

11ah. 9 October 2000, BBC News Website, (accessed 19 October 2000), Uproar at pictures of FARC camps.

11ai. 9 October 2000, BBC News Website, (accessed 19 October 2000), Colombian rebels kill twenty people.

11aj. 11 October 2000, BBC News Website, (accessed 19 October 2000), Colombian police free kidnapped boy.

11ak. 11 October 2000, BBC News Website, (accessed 19 October 2000), Red Cross suspends work in Colombia considers "amnesty" for jailed FARC.

11al. 13 October 2000, BBC News Website, (accessed 19 October 2000), Oil workers seized in Ecuador.

11am. 13 October 2000, BBC News Website, (accessed 19 October 2000), Abductees murdered in Colombia.

11an. 13 October 2000, CNN.com News website, (accessed 19 October 2000), Massacre leaves 11 people dead in Colombia.

11ao. 16 October 2000, BBC News Website, (accessed 19 October 2000), Colombia's massive military purge.

11an. 13 October 2000, CNN.com News website, (accessed 19 October 2000), Massacre leaves 11 people dead in Colombia.

11ao. 16 October 2000, BBC News Website, (accessed 19 October 2000), Colombia's massive military purge.

11ap. 25 October 2000, CNN.com News website, (accessed 4 December 2000), Colombian bands kidnap six lawmakers.

11ar. 27 October 2000, CNN.com News website, (accessed 4 December 2000), Colombia to vote Sunday after bloody campaign.

11as. 14 November 2000, BBC News Website, (accessed 4 December 2000), Colombian rebels suspend peace talks.

11at. 17 November 2000, BBC News Website, (accessed 4 December 2000), Colombian army wants more troops.

11au. 23 November 2000, BBC News Website, (accessed 4 December 2000), Colombian paramilitaries blamed for massacre.

11av. 1 December 2000, CNN.com News website, (accessed 4 December 2000), Death squad kills at least 36 Colombians.

11aw. 1 December 2000, CNN.com News website, (accessed 4 December 2000), Colombia and US say US officials were not targeted.

11ax. 1 December 2000, BBC News Website, (accessed 4 December 2000), Colombian army: FARC uses child soldiers.

11ay. 3 December 2000, BBC News Website, (accessed 4 December 2000), Colombia anti-drugs victory.

11az. 6 February 2001, BBC News Website, (accessed 6 March 2001), Barrancabermeja : Colombia's Sarajevo

11ba. 8 February 2001, BBC News Website, (accessed 6 March 2001), Colombia police officer held after shooting

11bb. 14 February 2001, BBC News Website, (accessed 6 March 2001), Peace talks back on track

11bc. Colombian rebels, government to resume peace talks

11bd. 15 February 2001, BBC News Website, (accessed 6 March 2001), Thousands flee Colombian violence

11be. 19 February 2001, BBC News Website, (accessed 6 March 2001), Colombia's city of violence

11bf. 20 February 2001, BBC News Website, (accessed 6 March 2001), Colombia attacks rebels' drug profits

11bg. 21 February 2001, BBC News Website, (accessed 6 March 2001), 30 dead in clashes

11bh. 22February 2001, BBC News Website, (accessed 6 March 2001), Colombia drug war escalates

11bi. 27 February 2001, BBC News Website, (accessed 6 March 2001), Bush backs Colombia drug offensive

11bj. 1 March 2001, BBC News Website, (accessed 6 March 2001), Thousands of land mines in Colombia

11bk. 1 March 2001, CNN.com News website, (accessed 7 March 2001), Colombia fires 135 police officers

11bl. 9 March 2001, BBC News Website, (accessed 15 March 2001), International Red Cross suspends Colombia evacuations

11bm. 12 March 2001, BBC News Website, (accessed 15 March 2001), Peace talks amid renewed violence

11bn. 15 March 2001, BBC News Website, (accessed 15 March 2001), Colombia asks Venezuela to extradite rebel.

11bo. 29 March 2001, BBC News Website, (accessed 17 April 2001), Hidden costs of Plan Colombia

11bp. 16 April 2001, CNN.com News website, (accessed 17 April 2001), Thirty reported killed by paramilitaries in Colombia

11bq. 3 April 2001, BBC News Website, (accessed 17 April 2001), Union leader shot dead in Colombia

11br. 5 April 2001, BBC News Website, (accessed 17 April 2001), Colombian general's 'cartel' bombshell

11bs. 10 April 2001, CNN.com News website, (accessed 17 April 2001), FARC commander sought on drug charges

11bt. 15 April 2001, CNN.com News website, (accessed 17 April 2001), Rebel army in Colombia suspends road blockades

11bu.16 April 2001, BBC News Website, (accessed 17 April 2001), Fresh massacre in Colombia

11bv. 20 April 2001, BBC News Website, (accessed 25 September 2001), Colombia rebels release last hostages

11bw. 23 April 2001, BBC News Website, (accessed 25 September 2001), Colombia probes rebel 'drugs links'

11bx. 2 September 2001, BBC News Website, (accessed 25 September 2001), US holds out hope of Colombia aid

11by. 6 September 2001, BBC News Website, (accessed 25 September 2001), Senior peacemaker killed in Colombia

11bz. 10 September 2001, CNN.com News website, (accessed 25 September 2001), US to classify Colombian group as 'terrorist'

11ca. 10 September 2001, BBC News Website, (accessed 25 September 2001), Colombia drugs lord pleads not guilty

11cb. 17 September 2001, BBC News Website, (accessed 25 September 2001), Army says FARC commander killed

11cc. 20 September 2001, Yahoo! News Website, (accessed 25 September 2001), 7 die in Colombia indian land dispute

11cd. 18 September 2001, Yahoo! News Website, (accessed 25 September 2001), Colombian candidate defies threats

11ce. 19 September 2001, Yahoo! News Website, (accessed 25 September 2001), Former Colombia drug lords say they still hunted

11cf. 21 September 2001, BBC News Website, (accessed 25 September 2001), Two dozen rebels killed in Colombia

11cg. 24 September 2001, Yahoo! News Website, (accessed 25 September 2001), Former Colombia minister kidnapped

11ch. 24 September 2001, CNN.com News website, (accessed 25 September 2001), Colombia arrests 2 in alleged assassination plot

11ci. 25 September 2001, BBC News Website, (accessed 25 September 2001), Colombia murder plot uncovered

11cj. 30 September 2001, Yahoo! News Website, (accessed 1 October 2001), Colombian peace talks rocked by latest killing

11ck. 10 January 2002, BBC News, accessed 10/10/02, Colombia resigned to war.

11cl. 11 January 2001, UNHCR News, Colombia: peace community murders must be investigated.

11cm. 10 January 2002, Human Rights Watch, Colombia: Rupture in peace negotiations endangers civilians.

11cn. 13 January 2002, CNN.com, Colombian peace process near collapse.

11co. 14 January 2002, BBC News, What now for Colombia?

11cp. 15 January 2002, UNHCR News, Colombian rebels return to peace talks; celebrations erupt.

11cq. 15 January 2002, CNN.com, Renewed fighting in Colombia day after peace deal.

11cr. 15 January 2002, BBC News website, Colombia president sets talks deadline.

11cs. 21 February 2002, BBC news website, Colombian army moves against rebels.

11ct. 25 March 2002, BBC News website, Analysis: Colombia rebels change tack.

11cu. 13 March 2002, BBC News website, Analysis: New order in Colombia's politics.

11cv. 15 April 2002, BBC News website, Bomb targets Colombian candidate.

[12] Other newswire sources: –

12a. BBC Monitoring Service, 27/10/98

12b. BBC Monitoring Service, 28/10/98

12c. BBC Monitoring Service, 14/11/98

12d. BBC Monitoring Service, 7/12/98

12e. 19/6/99, 'El Espectador' website, Bogota, Reform Continues in the Military Forces

12f. 1 December 1999, "El Tiempo" Website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service) via Reuters Business Briefing, Colombia: congress passes law on disappearance, forced displacement.

12g. 27 September 1999, "El Espectador" website, posted 17/09/99, (BBC Monitoring Service) via Reuters Business Briefing, Official report says paramilitary groups now operating throughout Colombia.

12h. 11 March 2002, Narco News, Colombia Voters Reject U.S. War.

[13] Reuters Business Briefing 1997: –

13a. Colombia pledges crackdown on rebels", 21 July 1997, Reuters Ltd.

13b. Colombia Presidential Campaign manager to be Freed", 1 August 1997, Reuters Ltd.

13c. Leftist Rebels kill Senator in Northeast Colombia, 8 August 1997, Reuters Ltd.

13d. 12 bodies found..., 14 August 1997, Reuters Ltd

13e. Colombia scraps vote..., 18 August 1997, Reuters Ltd

13f. Rebels seen winning..., 31 August 1997, Reuters Ltd

13g. Military mayors appointed..., 2 September 1997,Reuters Ltd

13h. Samper outlines plan..., 3 December 1997, BBC Monitoring Service

[14] Reuters Business Briefing 1998: –

14a. Death squad murders... 13 February 1998, Daily Telegraph

14b. Army denies alleged role... 13 February 1998, Reuters Ltd

14c. Colombian rebels kill... 3 March 1998, Reuters Ltd

14d. Paper reports extensive... 6 March 1998, BBC Monitoring Service

14e. President says elections... 10 March 1998, BBC Monitoring Service

14f. President Samper installs... 4 April 1998, President's website

14g. Peace accord signed... 29 July 1998, BBC Monitoring Service

14h. Colombian rebels launch... 5 August 1998, Reuters Ltd

14i. Colombia rebels kill... 6 August 1998, Reuters Ltd

14j. New President pledges... 10 August 1998, BBC Monitoring Service

14k. Pastrana urged to end... 8 September 1998, Reuters Ltd

14l. More Massacres... 1 October 1998, Janes Intelligence Review

14m. Colombia says 28 rebels... 5 September 1998, Reuters Ltd

14n. Guerrillas, Paramilitaries... 28 September 1998, BBC Monitoring Service

14o. Army ordered... 16 October 1998, BBC Monitoring Service

14p. FARC wants to verify... 17 October 1998, BBC Monitoring Service

14q. Freed US hostages... 26 April 1998, Reuters Ltd

14r. Bomb goes off... 29 April 1998, BBC Monitoring Service

14s. Human rights?... 25 April 1998, Economist

14t. Army rejects... 16 May 1998, BBC Monitoring Service

14u. Colombian death squads'...18 May 1998, Guardian

14v. Colombian General threatens..., 13 May 1998, Dallas Morning News

14w. President Samper tells candidates... 18 May 1998, BBC Monitoring Service

14x. Disbandment of 20th... 22 May 1998, BBC Monitoring Service

14y. Profile of Colombia's.... 28 May 1998, Reuters Ltd

14z. Independent stopped... 1 June 1998, Reuters Ltd

14aa. Peace seen as key... 1 June 1998, Reuters Ltd

14ab. Colombia's Pastrana wins... 22 June 1998, Reuters Ltd

14ac. Attacks before poll, 22 June 1998, Nationwide News Proprietary Ltd

14ad. Rebel ELN, peace... 30 June 1998, BBC Monitoring Service

14ae. Jungle talks open... 11 July 1998, Guardian

14af. Liberal Party loses... 23 July 1998, BBC Monitoring Service

14ag. Samper says 94 campaign... 21 July 1998, Reuters Ltd

14ah. Colombia's Samper sorry... 29 July 1998, Reuters Ltd

14ai. Paramilitary leader... 29 July 1998, BBC Monitoring Service

14aj. Rebels threaten... 26 November 1998, Reuters Ltd

14ak. Massacre of villagers... 11 November 1998, Scotsman

14al. Death squads declare... 3 December 1998, Reuters Ltd

14am. Armed forces affirm... 15 December 1998, BBC Monitoring Service

[15] Reuters Business Briefing 1999: –

15a. Government's 10-point... 14 January 1999, BBC Monitoring Service

15b. Colombia quake city... 29 January 1999, Reuters Ltd

15c. Government decrees... 1 February 1999, BBC Monitoring Service

15d. Death squads exploit... 31 Jaanuary 1999, Independent on Sunday

15e. Minister says neighbouring... 17 February 1999, BBC Monitoring Service

15f. ELN denies participation... 7 March 1999, Notimex news agency

15g. Rebels deny US deaths... 7 March 1999, Reuters Ltd

15h. Vigilante massacres... 12 January 1999, Times newspapers Ltd.

15i. Government issues communique... 14 January 1999, BBC Monitoring Service

15j. US groups demand crackdown... 5 February 1999, Global information Network

15k. Chopper crashes... 7 March 1999, Reuters Ltd

15l. Quake masks death... 3 February 1999, Guardian

15m. Paramilitary group frees... 18 February 1999, BBC Monitoring Service

15n. Paramilitaries free... 19 February 1999, BBC Monitoring Newsfile

15o. Colombian troops detain... 21 January 1999, Xinhua News Agency

15p. FARC rebels promise... 8 June 1999, BBC Monitoring Service

15q. US warns against... 11 June 1999, Reuters Ltd

15r. Colombians seek asylum... 11 June 1999, Reuters Ltd

15s. "Faceless justice"... 15 June 1999, Global Information Network

15t. Mechanism agreed... 25 June 1999, BBC Monitoring Service

15u. Colombians protest against... Reuters Ltd

15v. Changes in criminal... 5 July 1999, BBC Monitoring Service

15w. Hostages caught up... 5 July 1999, Independent

15x. Government, FARC postpone... BBC Monitoring Service

15y. FARC attacks police... 10 July 1999, BBC Worldwide Monitoring

15z. Rebel ambush... 10 July 1999, Independent

15aa. Colombia declares curfew... 11 July 1999, Reuters Ltd

15ab. Colombian peace process.. 18 July 1999, Reuters Ltd

15ac. Armed forces say 733.. 24 July 1999, BBC Monitoring Service

15ad. Colombians fleeing homeland, 28 July 1999, Washington Post

15ae. Court holds first ever... 29 July 1999, BBC Monitoring Service

15af. Children in Colombia, 23 July 1999, Guardian

[16] Reuters Business Briefing 1999: –

16a. 11 August 1999, Reuters, Colombia violence provokes...

16b. 11 August 1999, Washington Post, Thousands roam Colombia...

16c. 14 August 1999, Washington Post, Colombian satirist slain

16d. 14 August 1999, New Straits Times, US aid for human rights...

16e. 21 August 1999, Guardian, No joy for hostage... & 16 August 1999, Reuters, Colombian rebels...

16f. 22 August 1999, Reuters, Death squads...

16g. 25 August 1999, Reuters, UN condemns Colombia over death...

16h. 25 August 1999, Wall Street Journal, Corrected – Despite policy...

16i. 28 August 1999, Radio Exterior de Espana Servicio Mundial, Madrid (BBC Monitoring Service), Colombia rejects UN charge...

16j. 29 August 1999, Washington Post, Colombian army drill...

16k. 2 September 1999, Inravision TV-A, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), ELN rebels declare...

16l. 2 September 1999, Reuters, Colombia strike ends...

16m. 16 September 1999, Reuters, Death squad denies...

16n. 17 September 1999, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), President launches 'elite'...

16o. 18 September 1999, Radio Exterior de Espana Servicio Mundial, Madrid (BBC Monitoring Service), Eye witness says...

16p. 20 September 1999, Reuters, Colombians in U.S. seek...

16q. 21 September 1999, Reuters, Colombia indians renew...

16r. 22 September 1999, 'El Tiempo' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Paper publishes...

16s. 23 September 1999, GIN – IPS Newsfeed, Spanish judge...

16t. 1 October 1999, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Military forces' commander...

16u. 1 October 1999, Economist Intelligence Unit, Outlook...

16v. 2 October 1999, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Government asks...

16w. 4 October 1999, Reuters, Colombia army frees...

16x. 5 October 1999, Reuters, Rebels rule in Colombia's...

16y. 5 October 1999, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Death threats force Senator Cordoba...

16z. 7 October 1999, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Anti-drug policy said a failure...

16aa. 7 October 1999, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC rebels form new...

16ab. 7 October 1999, Reuters, Colombia journalist stabbed to death

16ac. 7 October 1999, Xinhua News Agency, 50 killed in...

16ad. 9 October 1999, Reuters, Brazil's Cardoso backs...

16ae. 11 October 1999, 'Clarin' website, Buenos Aires (BBC Monitoring Service) Senior rebel commander interviewed...

16af. 12 October 1999, Radionet, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Paramilitary groups propose...

16ag. 12 October 1999, Reuters, Colombia congress scraps vote...

16ah. 13 October 1999, Jane's Defence Weekly, Soldiers convicted...

16ai. 14 October 1999, Washington Post, Major arrests sabotage...

16aj. 14 October 1999, Reuters, Colombia hit by more...

16ak. 15 October 1999, 'El Tiempo' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Peace commissioner rejects...

16al. 22 October 1999, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC spokesman on resumption of talks...

16am. 24 October 1999, Xinhua News Agency, Colombian government...

16an. 24 October 1999, Reuters, Colombia peace talks...

16ao. 25 October 1999, Reuters, Colombia fires prison chief...

16ap. 26 October 1999, Reuters, UN chief considers special peace envoy...

16aq. 26 October 1999, Reuters, Jailed Colombia rebels...

16ar. 27 October 1999, AUC Website (BBC Monitoring Service), Text of paramilitaries' letter...

16as. 27 October 1999, EFE via Comtex, FARC willing to execute murderers of...

16at. 27 October 1999, Xinhua News Agency, Over 1,200 civilians...

16au. 30 October 1999, Evening mail, Birmingham, UK, The monster who...

16av. 2 November 1999, 'El Tiempo' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Police chief...

16aw. 2 November 1999, Xinhua News Agency, Colombian rebel forces...

16ax. 2 November 1999, Reuters, Colombian rebels free ...

16ay. 3 November 1999, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Mayors decry lack of...

16az. 4 November 1999, Caracol TV, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), Peace commissioner...

16ba. 4 November 1999, 'El Tiempo' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Proposals for citizens...

16bb. 4 November 1999, Reuters, Analysis – journalists on front line...

16bc. 5 November 1999, GIN – IPS Newsfeed, Protesters blockade...

16bd. 5 November 1999, Xinhua News Agency, Panama to limit visas...

16be. 7 November 1999, Xinhua News Agency, Fighting in Colombia leaves...

16bf. 7 November 1999, Reuters, Gunmen murder small-town mayor..

16bg. 7 November 1999, Reuters, Idealogue denies...

16bh. 8 November 1999, Lloyd's List, Political and civil unrest – Colombia...

16bi. 8 November 1999, 'El Colombiano' website, Medellin (BBC Monitoring Service), Minister says Colombian FARC...

16bj. 8 November 1999, Reuters, Violence in Colombia drug zone...

16bk. 10 November 1999, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), President Pastrana announces...

16bl. 10 November 1999, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Pastrana calls for FARC...

16bm. 10 November 1999, Caracol TV, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), "Subversive crimes" investigator...

16bn. 10 November 1999, Reuters, Amnesty opposes US aid...

16bo. 10 November 1999, GIN – IPS Newsfeed, Car-bomb raises specter...

16bp. 10 November 1999, Washington Post, Car bomb in Bogota...

16bq. 10 November 1999, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Army chief says...

16br. 10 November 1999, Reuters, Colombia rebels...

16bs. 10 November 1999, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), President Pastrana insists...

16bt. 10 November 1999, Reuters, Five inmates killed...

16bu. 10 November 1999, Reuters, Colombia indians seize...

16bv. 10 November 1999, Xinhua News Agency News Bulletin, WFP launches operation to help...

16bw. 10 November 1999, 'El Tiempo' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Bomb at newspaper's Cali...

16bx. 10 November 1999, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), ELN rebels free...

16by. 10 November 1999, Reuters, Colombian rebels attack...

16bz. 10 November 1999, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), ELN rebels discuss...

16ca. 10 November 1999, 'El Tiempo' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Alleged drug traffickers...

16cb. 10 November 1999, Radionet, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Government announces new curfews...

16cc.10 November 1999, Economist Intelligence Unit, Pastrana seeks financing...

16cd. 10 November 1999, Xinhua News Agency News Bulletin, Colombian rebels vow to...

16ce. 10 November 1999, Dow Jones International News, Colombia's stalled Cano Limon...

16cf. 10 November 1999, Xinhua News Agency News Bulletin, Rebel offensive...

16cg. 10 November 1999, Reuters, Colombia extradites...

16ch. 10 November 1999, Reuters, Colombia, Rebels to resume

[17] Reuters Business Briefing 2000: –

17a. 19 December 1999, Reuters, Army sends Christmas cards to Colombia guerrillas.

17b. 20 December 1999, Reuters, Colombian rebels call Christmas truce.

17c. 18 December 1999, "El Colombiano" Website, Medellin, posted 16/12/99, (BBC Monitoring Service), Middle Magdalena paramilitary groups reject Christmas truce.

17d. 17 December 1999, Reuters, Colombia police snub $3 million bribe

17e. 15 December 1999, Reuters, Colombian security forces claim 60 rebels killed.

17f. 15 December 1999, Emisoras Caracol Network Website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Peace commissioner notes threats against his life.

17g. 5 January 2000, "Radio Cadena Nacional " Website, Bogota, posted 05/01/00 (BBC Monitoring Service), Bolivar department mayors, residents against DMZ for ELN talks.

17h. 5 January 2000, "El Colombiano" Website, Medellin, posted 05/01/00 (BBC Monitoring Service), President says keen to start talks with ELN rebels.

17i. 2 January 2000, Agencia EFE via Comtex News Colombian rebels kill four, including indian leader.

17j. 5 January 2000, the Oil Daily, 1999 sets record for bombings; 4 January 2000, the Oil Daily, Cano Limon bombed in Y2K.

17k. 5 January 2000, National Liberation Army's Voices of the New Colombia website (BBC Monitoring Service), ELN, FARC rebels issue statement denying feuds.

17l. 12 January 2000, Reuters, Dozens feared dead as Colombia rebel truce ends. 12 January 2000, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC rebels announce end of Christmas truce...

17m. 13 January 2000, Reuters, Outspoken former defense minister dies in Colombia.

17n. 15 January 2000, The Economist, Colombia: a new war

17o. 18 January 2000, Reuters, Colombia death squads kill 26 peasants.

17p. 19 January 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), President approves law modifying penal code on impunity

17q. 19 January 2000, GIN – IPS Newsfeed, UN official optimistic about peace process

17r. 20 January 2000, "El Colombiano" website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Army reports clashes with FARC rebels, "severe losses" for guerillas.

17s. 20 January 2000, Xinhua news agency, UNICEF praises Colombian ban to recruit children in army.

17t. 21 January 2000, Reuters, Suspected Colombia death squad kills 10. 21 January 2000, Reuters, Colombia death squads vow revenge massacres.

17u. 22 January 2000, Caracol TV, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Army rescue group arrests an EPL rebel leader.

17v. 22 January 2000, Caracol TV, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), ELN set to blow up more pylons if demilitarized zone not set up.

17w. 1 February 2000, Reuters, Children "cannon fodder" in Colombia's war

17x. 2 February 2000, "El Mundo" website, Madrid, (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC leader tells Spanish daily FARC "does not depend or live on coca".

17y. 3 February 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Judge says police chief putting "pressure" over corruption case

17z. 4 February 2000, Reuters, Colombia gets new prisons chief after killings

17aa. 4 February 2000, Notimex news agency, Mexico, AUC group reportedly carries out bomb attack in residential area.

17ab. 5 February 2000, Xinhua news agency, UN High Commissioner for refugees to visit Colombia

17ac. 6 February 2000, Reuters, Colombians reject violence in Sweden peace talks

17ad. 8 February 2000, Reuters, Colombia truckers agree to lift strike

17ae. 9 February 2000, Reuters, Colombian troops free hundreds of highway hostages

17af. 10 February 2000, Radio Caracol TV website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Army captures alleged "king" of heroin cartels

17ag. 11 February 2000, Economist Intelligence Unit, New twin-component healthcare system

17ah. 11 February 2000, GIN – IPS Newsfeed, Children of the war

17ai. 12 February 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Public sector corruption said to cost over 4Bn dollars a year

17aj. 13 February 2000, Xinhua news agency, Colombian government steps up security at public roads

17ak. 14 February 2000, "El Colombiano" website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Peasants block road in protest against DMZ for ELN in Bolivar

17al. 14 February 2000, UMI US News and World Report, The U'was' last stand Colombian indians vs. Occidental Petroleum

17am. 15 February 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC deserters say foreigners training rebels.

17an. 17 February 2000, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), Interior minister says discord among ELN rebels blocking peace moves

17ao. 17 February 2000, Telemetro TV, Panama, (BBC Monitoring Service), Trade unions ask FARC to suspend actions along border with Panama

17ap. 19 February 2000, Radionet website, Bogota, posted 15/02/00 (BBC Monitoring Service), Commanders of ELN rebel group interviewed on peace process

17aq. 19 February 2000, Office of the President website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Peasants agree on "Zone of Confidence"

17ar. 20 February 2000, Reuters, Colombia may fly night raids on drug plantations

17as. 1 December 1999, Jane's Defence Weekly, Rebels mount fierce onslaught on Colombia.

17at. 3 December 1999, Xinhua news agency, Government and FARC started fourth round talks.

17au. 7 December 1999, Reuters, Colombia unveils special anti-guerrilla force.

17av. 9 December 1999, Reuters, Norwegian diplomat named UN adviser on Colombia

17aw. 14 December 1999, "El Colombiano" website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Government rejects Human Rights Watch report.

17ax. 1 February 2000, Reuters, Clinton, US lawmakers agree on aid for Colombia.

17ay. 10 February 2000, Washington Post, Yes on aid to Colombia.

17az. 21 February 2000, Reuters, UN official criticizes US aid plan for Colombia

17ba. 23 February 2000, Reuters, Colombia death squad said to dance during torture.

17bb. 25 February 2000, Congress Daily, Senate appropriations subpanels pore over Colombia request.

17bc. 1 March 2000, Reuters, Colombia rebels "declare war" on United States.

17bd. 1 March 2000, Reuters, US blesses Mexico, Colombia drug efforts

17be. 16 March 2000, Los Angeles Times, Colombia defense chief in US lobbying for aid

17bf. 18 March 2000, Economist, The assault on democratic society in Colombia

17bg. 20 March 2000, Reuters, Global sales of Colombia drugs seen at $46 Bln in '99

17bh. 21 March 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service) Interested parties react to self-defence groups' offer to withdraw

17bi. 22 March 2000, Economist Intelligence Unit, Colombia politics – US Congress studies aid package

17bj. 23 March 2000, 'El Tiempo' website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service) Peace commissioner reacts to self-defence groups' withdrawal offer

17bk. 24 March 2000, 'Cambio' website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service) Military says FARC rebels planning increased kidnaps, extortion

17bl. 26 March 2000, Reuters, Colombian Congress rocked by graft scandal

17bm. 11 April 2000, Reuters, Colombia's FARC rebels – the enemy within.

17bn. 24 April 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Government, ELN agree on demilitarized area.

17bo. 26 April 2000, Reuters News Service, Colombia rebels declare "tax" on rich

17bp. 27 April 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Rebel groups reportedly threaten 500 mayors

17bq. 29 April 2000, "El Colombiano" website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Income of FARC and ELN rebels estimated by armed forces.

17br. 29 April 2000, Milwaukee Journal Sentinal, Colombia prison rioting ends after 26 deaths.

17bs. 29 April 2000, Reuters News Service, Colombian rebels launch new movement with fanfare.

17bt. 29 April 2000, 'El Pais' website, Cali (BBC Monitoring Service), Details of "meeting zone" agreed with ELN rebels reported.

17bu. 30 April 2000, Reuters News Service, Colombia rebels' movement raises doubts.

17bv. 3 May 2000, 'El Tiempo' website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service) Army reports guerrillas recruiting minors.

17bw. 13 May 2000, 'El Pais' website, Cali (BBC Monitoring Service), Liberal party, business council comment on proposed political accord.

17bx. 4 May 2000, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), Military official comments on negotiations, ELN, FARC's political wing.

17by. 5 May 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Liberal party expels pastrana supporters from its ranks.

17bz. 6 May 2000, Reuters News Service, Colombia rebels eye Peru, Ecuador for sanctury.

17ca. 8 May 2000, Xinhua news agency, Drug dealers in Colombia earn a lot – study.

17cb. 9 May 2000,Dow Jones International News, Gangs bilking Colombia's regional pension system.

17cc. 12 May 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Tolima governor declares emergency because of FARC-AUC fighting.

17cd. 11 May 2000, Dow Jones International News, Colombia guerrilla "tax" ups debt costs by $750 million a year.

17ce. 15 February 2001, Financial Times, Jailing of Colombian fails to convince...

17cf. 4 December 2000, Economist Intelligence Unit, Colombia – country outlook

17cg. 17 May 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Woman killed by "collar bomb" by FARC rebels.

17ch. 19 May 2000, Xinhua news agency, FARC resumes peace talks

17ci. 19 May 2000, The Oil Daily, "Necklace bomb" attack on farmer's wife puts Colombia peace plan under new cloud.

17cj. 20 May 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Government issues 1999 human rights report.

17ck. 21 May 2000, Reuters News Service, Peace czar says FARC not responsible for necklace bomb.

17cl. 23 May 2000, The Oil Daily, Colombian peace plan revived.

17cm. 26 May 2000, Reuters News Service, Cameras to track crime in Colombian capital.

17cn. 27 May 2000, Xinhua news agency, Colombia dismantles arms smuggling ring.

17co. 29 May 2000, Reuters News Service, Colombia's Pastrana leads nation into chaos

17cp. 30 May 2000, Xinhua news agency, Colombian mayor murdered.

17cq. 30 May 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC's spokesman Reyes on reasons for seeking belligerent status.

17cr. 31 May 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Paramilitaries back demilitarized zone for talks with ELN rebels.

17cs. 2 June 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Government agrees not to talk to rebel ELN without public consultation.

17ct. 6 June 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC rebels confirm "new law to halt administrative corruption".

17cu. 6 June 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), DMZ expires on 7th June, no decision to extend "yet" – commissioner.

17cv. 6 June 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Pastrana rejects FARC announcement of "anti-corruption law".

17cw. 8 June 2000, 'El Tiempo' website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Officer accuses FARC rebels of buying land with drug proceeds.

17cx. 8 June 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Government gives ELN "political status", extends FARC demilitarised zone...

17cy. 9 June 2000, Office of the President website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Government creates protection programme for political party members.

17cz. 9 June 2000, 'El Pais' website, Cali (BBC Monitoring Service), Security increased in San Vicente del Caguan demilitarized zone.

17da. 10 June 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Local police chief blames paramilitary groups for higher murder rate.

17db. 12 June 2000, GIN – IPS Newsfeed, Government, Rebels criticize foreign meddling.

17dc. 12 June 2000, Economist Intelligence Unit, Key developments

17dd. 13 June 2000, "El Colombiano" website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Antioquia peasants caught between paramilitaries, FARC rebels.

17de. 15 June 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC, ELN fight paramilitary groups to control west Antioquia, Uraba.

17df. 16 June 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), ELN invites Liberal party to national convention.

17dg. 17 June 2000, Xinhua news agency, Colombia's ELN invites FARC to national convention.

17dh. 17 June 2000, Xinhua News Agency, 785 Colombian civilians killed by rebels and paramilitaries.

17di. 19 June 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), ELN invitation to FARC points to possible joint stand on peace.

17dj. 23 June 2000, Defense Daily, Senate rejects attempt to provide black hawks to Colombia.

17dk. 23 June 2000, Xinhua news agency, Colombia to carry out plan to substitute illegal cultivates.

17dl. 24 June 2000, Notimex news agency, Mexico, Colombian army captures rebel commander.

17dm. 26 June 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Paramilitaries release peace negotiator's kidnapped brother in "peace gesture".

17dn. 26 June 2000, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), court clears way for extraditions to USA without treaty.

17do. 27 June 2000, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), Paramilitary leader interviewed on DMZ, operations, future.

17dp. 28 June 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC rebels demand "alternative" development plans to fight drugs.

17dq. 30 June 2000, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), Government allows "regional dialogues" with FARC rebels.

17dr. 4 July 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Army launches offensive against ELN rebels near Cali.

17ds. 4 July 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Military official says guerrilla ranks include 6,000 minors.

17dt. 4 July 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC criticize peace commissioner's "quarrelsome attitude" at hearing.

17du. 5 July 2000, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC leader says cease-fire must be linked to reduction of social ills.

17dv. 5 July 2000, Xinhua news agency, Colombian rebel force opposes destruction of coca plants.

17dw. 5 July 2000, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC leader says cease-fire must be linked to reduction of social ills.

17dx. 7 July 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Church proposes international group to probe FARC "concentration camp".

17dy. 11 July 2000, Xinhua news agency, Colombian rebel FARC rejects foreign presence at neutral zone.

17dz. 30 December 2000, Reuters News Service , Peace process advancing, Pastrana tells Colombians

17ea. 12 July 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Government negotiator and FARC discuss kidnapping crisis.

17eb. 12 July 2000, (FARC Communique) via New Colombia News Agency, (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC-EP say "militaristic right wing" seeks to derail peace talks.

17ec. 12 July 2000, Dow Jones International News, Colombian opposition rejects "national unity" cabinet.

17ed. 13 July 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Army report says guerrillas destroyed 168 towns in past 18 months.

17ee. 4 November 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Opinion poll gives Pastrana third highest unpopularity rating for year

17ef. 13 July 2000, Office of the President website, (BBC Monitoring Service), President Pastrana completes cabinet reshuffle.

17eg. 10 August 2000, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), Foreign minister details army's actions against rebels.

17eh. 21 November 2000, Latin American Newsletters, FARC puts negotiations on hold...

17ei. 15 July 2000, Economist, Colombia's new team

17ej. 17 July 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Colombian police to build "bunkers" to withstand rebel attacks.

17ek. 19 July 2000, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), Police chief says rebels aiming to expand demilitarized zone.

17el. 20 July 2000, Office of the President website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Police director says FARC leaders lack control of the group's fronts.

17em. 20 July 2000, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), Liberal leader Serpa criticises military component of Plan Colombia.

17en. 20 July 2000, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), Rebels, paramilitary groups exert pressure on regional candidates.

17eo. 21 July 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Ombudsman says FARC obstructing work within DMZ.

17ep. 24 July 2000, Reuters News Service, Rival Colombians talk peace in Geneva.

17eq. 26 July 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Army accuses FARC of extermination plan against military personnel.

17er. 26 July 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), ELN rebel leader says paramilitaries surrounding camps.

17es. 26 July 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Geneva ELN meeting disappoints.

17et. 26 July 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), ELN's military leader Garcia admits his group is facing difficulties.

17eu. 26 July 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC reportedly order fronts reinforced in response to plan colombia.

17ev. 28 July 2000, Reuters News Service, Colombians ran extortion racket from prison.

17ew. 28 July 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), ELN releases another Avianca hostage, still holds four others.

17ex. 29 July 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Ombudsman condemns disappearances in FARC demilitarized zone.

17ey. 31 July 2000, GIN – IPS Newsfeed, Revolutionary justice in demilitarized zone.

17ez. 1 August 2000, Reuters News Service, Rights groups object to Colombia aid arrangements

17fa. 1 August 2000, Los Angeles Times, Crime cannot 'liberate' Colombia

17fb. 6 September 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC rebels to propose cease-fire "without any other conditions".

17fc. 1 August 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Colombian police death toll put at 13.

17fd. 2 August 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), International community urged to condemn FARC rebels.

17fe. 2 August 2000, Xinhua news agency, Colombian official defends neutral zone.

17ff. 2 August 2000, Reuters News Service, Colombians leaving at rate of 1,000 people per day.

17fg. 2 August 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), International community urged to condemn FARC rebels.

17fh. 2 August 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), ELN, EPL join forces to confront FARC near Barrancabermeja.

17fi. 4 August 2000, Economist Intelligence Unit, Colombia finance – government presents expansive spending plan.

17fj. 4 August 2000, 'El Pais' website, Cali (BBC Monitoring Service), Drug crops, immigration increase in Narino after spraying in Putumayo.

17fk. 5 August 2000, Notimex news agency, Mexico, Minister says armed forces have many problems in fighting guerrillas.

17fl. 7 August 2000, 'El Pais' website, Cali (BBC Monitoring Service), Paramilitaries create new front, threaten candidates in Cauca.

17fm. 7 August 2000, Reuters News Service, Colombians pessimistic as president hits midterm.

17fn. 8 August 2000, Reuters News Service, Death and the Virgin Mary in Medellin gang wars.

17fo. 8 August 2000, Washington Post, Children of war fill Colombia's slums.

17fp. 9 August 2000, Notimex news agency, Mexico, Small guerrilla groups complicate peace efforts.

17fq. 10 August 2000, 'Cambio' website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC rebels reportedly declare opposition leader military target.

17fr. 11 August 2000, Economist Intelligence Unit, Colombia – constitution and institutions.

17fs. 12 August 2000, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), ELN sets fire to 46 vehicles, extends roads strike to 16th August.

17ft. 12 August 2000, Reuters News Service, UN opens refugee office in Colombia drug region.

17fu. 12 August 2000, Xinhua news agency, Colombian rebel ELN lifts roadblocks.

17fv. 14 August 2000, Economist Intelligence Unit, Colombia – education.

17fw. 16 August 2000, "El Colombiano" website, (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC reportedly arming peasants against plan colombia operations.

17fx. 17 August 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service),Six children killed in crossfire between army, ELN.

17fy. 17 August 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Thirty-seven NGOs and social groups reject plan colombia.

17fz. 19 August 2000, 'El Pais' website, Cali (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC and ELN rebels destroy two pylons, cut power to Narino, Putumayo.

17ga. 21 August 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), UN asks guerrillas, paramilitaries to allow elections.

17gb. 21 August 2000, Reuters News Service, Colombia rounds up beggars ahead of Clinton visit.

17gc. 22 August 2000, Reuters News Service, Clinton to free Colombia aid despite rights record.

17gd. 23 August 2000, Reuters News Service, Clinton defends rights waiver for Colombian aid.

17ge. 23 August 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), "Empresa Colombia" to be implemented in demilitarized zone.

17gf. 23 August 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Municipalities want local elections postponed in rebel areas.

17gg. 24 August 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC says exchange of prisoners would facilitate truce negotiations.

17gh. 24 August 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), ELN says it will attack oil pipelines in protest at Clinton's visit.

17gi. 24 August 2000, M2 Presswire, Plan colombia certification requirements – press statement by Richard Boucher, spokesman.

17gj. 24 August 2000, "El Colombiano" website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Paramilitary leader proposes cease-fire from 3rd to 10th september.

17gk. 24 August 2000, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), movement for peace urges "unity for one week" in September.

17gl. 25 August 2000, Wall Street Journal, What will one billion American dollars buy in Colombia?

17gm. 27 August 2000, Agencia EFE via Comtex News, Two undercover flights transport arms each week.

17gn. 28 August 2000, Washington Post, "Lots of laws, but no law".

17go. 28 August 2000, Reuters News Service, Poll – colombians want US intervention in rebel war.

17gp. 29 August 2000, Agencia EFE via Comtex News, Bogota students take government building to protest Clinton's visit.

17gq. 29 August 2000, Reuters News Service, Top Colombian rebel dies in "accident".

17gr. 30 August 2000, Xinhua news agency, Clinton's visit raises controversies in Colombia.

17gs. 30 August 2000, Reuters News Service, Colombians, police clash in anti-Clinton protest.

17gt. 31 August 2000, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), "Fundamental points" of plan colombia reported.

17gu. 7 September 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Paper reports continuous human rights violations in Putumayo.

17gv. 31 August 2000, 'El Pais' website, Cali (BBC Monitoring Service), President says state in control in demilitarized zone.

17gw. 1 September 2000, "El Colombiano" website, (BBC Monitoring Service),

17gx. 2 September 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service),

17gy. 8 September, 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Confusion reigns over presence, fate of Colombian refugees in Venezuela.

17gz. 10 August 2000, Economist Intelligence Unit, Colombia – country risk summary

17ha. 8 September 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), ELN rebels burn bus, dynamite toll booth on Pan-American highway.

17hb. 8 September 2000, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), Rebel commander says government lacks will to establish DMZ.

17hc. 9 September 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Army reportedly reinforces presence on border with Colombia.

17hd. 11 September 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Paramilitary burn homes – 600 displaced people move to Antioquia.

17he. 13 September 2000, "El Colombiano" website, (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC rebels blow up cattle after farmers refuse to pay rebel tax.

17hf. 13 September 2000, Reuters News Service, Britain presses Colombia on human rights.

17hg. 14 September 2000, ITAR-TASS world service, Moscow, Russian and Lithuanian citizens abducted in Colombia.

17hh. 14 September 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Electoral council urges government to postpone regional elections.

17hi. 14 September 2000, "El Colombiano" website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Southern Bolivar communities submit proposal for ELN meeting zone.

17hj. 14 September 2000, Economist Intelligence Unit, Colombia politics – who finances the paramilitaries?

17hk. -

17hl. 15 September 2000, Dow Jones International News, No civil war in Colombia, President Pastrana tells FLA. Conf.

17hm. 16 September 2000, Radionet, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Army says FARC moving hostages to demilitarized area.

17hn. 16 September 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), President reorganizes army, defends human rights.

17ho. 17 September 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Peace commissioner to discuss issue of escaped prisoner with FARC.

17hp. 19 September 2000, 'El Pais' website, Cali (BBC Monitoring Service), Government rejects calls to postpone election in demilitarized zone.

17hq. 19 September 2000, Economist Intelligence Unit, Peace process suffers double blow.

17hr. 19 September 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Government proposes increased sentences for kidnapping.

17hs. 19 September 2000, Latin American Weekly Report, Drive to secure 'monopoly of force' – more manpower in carrot-and-stick initiative.

17ht. 20 September 2000, Reuters News Service, Rebels say Colombia peace process is "dying".

17hu. 21 September 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC call for resignation of justice minister, director of prisons.

17hv. 21 September 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), governor of Valle del Cauca says government ignored security warnings.

17hw. 22 September 2000, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), government warns FARC that DMZ could be entered to arrest hijacker...

17hx. 22 September 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Analysts highlight difficulties of DMZ hijack "mess".

17hy. 22 September 2000, Agencia EFE via Comtex News, Colombian government could provide for guerrillas if attacks end.

17hz. 22 September 2000, Reuters News Service, Right-wing gangs kill up to 33 Colombians.

17ia. 23 September 2000, Reuters News Service, Colombia fires 70 corrupt prison guards.

17ib. -

17ic. 22 September 2000, Reuters News Service, Right wing gangs kill up to 33 Colombians.

17id. 26 September 2000, Reuters News Service, Government, opposition seek agreement on political reform.

17ie. 26 September 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Colombian government welcomes rebels' decision not to interfere with elections.

17if. 27 September 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Government, rebels fail to resolve "impasse" over DMZ hijack.

17ig. 27 September 2000, Xinhua News Agency Bulletin,

17ih. 28 September 2000, Reuters News Service, Colombia soldiers cleared in child killings.

17ii. 28 September 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Army leader says plan Colombia will suffer "merciless attacks".

17ij. 29 September 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC rebels say they welcome foreign investment.

17ik. 30 September 2000, New Colombia News Agency, (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC rebels declare US troops "military target".

17il. 30 September 2000, Xinhua news agency, 2,000 kidnapped in Colombia in first eight months.

17im. 2 October 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Government approves aid for victims of armed conflict.

17in. 3 October 2000, Office of the President website, (BBC Monitoring Service), President suspends public appointments.

17io. 3 October 2000, Reuters News Service, Red Cross suspends combat work in Colombia.

17ip. 5 October 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Finance minister announces plan to downsize government.

17iq. October 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), President denounces oil revenue losses due to rebel attacks.

17ir. October 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Guerrillas offer to free captives in return for release of prisoners.

17is. October 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Institutions safe despite "war against civil society", says president.

17it. 11 October 2000, Reuters News Service, Colombia rebels kill 20 death squad members.

17iu. -

17iv. 11 October 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Conern about situation...

17iw. 13 October 2000, 'El Pais' website, Cali (BBC Monitoring Service), Putumayo governor wants state of emergency decreed for his department.

17ix. 13 October 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Police rescue five-year-old boy who had been kidnapped by FARC.

17iy. 13 October 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Armed forces begin to carry out plan for military control of Putumayo.

17iz. 14 October 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC, AUC reportedly suffer heavy casualties in Putumayo fighting.

17ja. 14 October 2000, 'El Nacional' website, Caracas, (BBC Monitoring Service), Minister rejects Colombian counterpart's remarks on border security.

17jb. 15 October 2000, Reuters News Service, Colombia to fire 300 officers – military sources.

17jc. 24 October 2000, Reuters News Service, 650 fleeing Colombians at border, Venezuela says.

17jd. 26 October 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC warns populace 'worst yet to come' in Putumayo.

17je. 28 October 2000, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC burn ballot papers in Narino – elections to go ahead in Putumayo.

17jf. 29 October 2000, Reuters News Service, Colombians vote amid escalating armed conflict.

17jg. 31 October 2000, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Eight Liberal Party members of Congress now missing.

17ji. 31 October 2000, 'El Pais' website, Cali (BBC Monitoring Service), More people displaced by violence come to Cali.

17jj. 31 October 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Minister says elections not protest

17jk. 1 November 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Minister says elections not protest vote against Conservative party.

17jl. 2 November 2000, 'Cambio' website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Columnist calls party politics big loser in local elections.

17jm. 2 November 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Conservative losses, Liberal wins, rebels' control seen in local polls.

17jn. 6 November 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Paramilitaries start freeing kidnapped legislators.

17jo. 10 November 2000, Xinhua News Agency, Colombian president meets Liberal leader.

17jp. 14 November 2000, Notimex news agency, Mexico, Colombian army reports FARC retreat in Putumayo.

17jq. 15 November 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Beleagued Putumayo residents threaten to join paramilitaries.

17jr. 17 November 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC rebels send reinforcements to Putumayo area.

17js. 17 November 2000, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), President proposes life of zone for FARC talks, cancels Europe trip.

17jt. 20 November 2000, Agencia EFE via Comtex News, Colombian rebels hold mock trial for killers of US nationals.

17ju. 20 November 2000, Economist Intelligence Unit, Humanitarian crisis arises in areas of conflict.

17jv. 1 December 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), National peace Council proposes extending life of DMZ for FARC talks.

17jw. 21 November 2000, Latin American Weekly Reports, FARC puts negotiations on hold – government delays armed drive into Putumayo.

17jx. 16 December 2000, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), Congressman says Venezuela involved in 151 "border incidents" since 1982

17jy. 27 December 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Pastrana discusses planned ELN "meeting zone" with local communities

17jz. 21 December 2000, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Colombia charges 26 army, police in rights probe.

[18] Reuters Business Briefing, 2001: –

18a. 9 January 2001, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Army and paramilitaries waging radio "war"

18b. 11 January 2001, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), ELN orders peasants to leave homes along the Bogota-Medellin road

18c. 11 January 2001, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), Guerrillas attack police patrol in Barrancabermeja...

18d. 10 January 2001, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), Army colonel arrested on suspicion of paramilitary ties

18e. 15 January 2001, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Barrancabermeja to discuss city's role in peace process

18f. 15 January 2001, "El Colombiano" website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Agreement closer with ELN on meeting zone – ELN to release police chief

18g. 16 January 2001, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Details of preliminary agreement with ELN on meeting zone reported.

18h. 17 January 2001, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Paramilitary groups set up blockades in Southern Bolivar

18i. 17 January 2001, "El Colombiano" website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Residents of proposed ELN meeting zone threaten mass protest

18j. 19 January 2001, Xinhua News Agency Bulletin, Mayor murdered in Colombia.

18k. 22 January 2001, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), 12 dead as violence returns to Barrancabermeja

18l. 22 January 2001, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Colombian government urged to increase police ranks to fill security void.

18m. 22 January 2001, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), AUC leader says there is now a paramilitary "capital front" in Bogota

18n. 23 January 2001, Reuters News Service, Press group says 53 journalists killed in 2000

18o. 25 January 2001, Intravision TV Canal Uno, Bogota, negotiator says government will "not beg" FARC to resume peace talks

18p. 25 January 2001, Reuters News Service, Colombia's war displaced 126,000 in 2000

18q. 25 January 2001, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Minister says FARC must show "signs of peace" by resuming talks

18r. 25 January 2001, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Army begins to move about 5,000 troops close to demilitarised zone.

18s. 26 January 2001, Reuters News Service, Colombia president sees rebels back at peace table

18t. 27 January 2001, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), "thousands" demonstrate in favour of peace talks with FARC, ELN

18u. 27 January 2001, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), Bishop backs retaking of DMZ by force if talks with FARC fail

18v. 29 January 2001, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), AUC leader sends letter to president backing continued DMZ for FARC talks

18w. 29 January 2001, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Minister reports agreement on meeting zone for talks with ELN rebels

18x. 29 January 2001, Economict Intelligence Unit, Demilitarised peace talks venue agreed

18y. 29 January 2001, Economict Intelligence Unit, Pastrana to make critical choice on FARC-held zone.

18z. 30 January 2001, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Colombian peace activists support extending "détente zone"

18aa. 1 February 2001, Washington Post, Colombia extends guerrilla haven for 4 more days

18ab. 2 February 2001, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Constitutional court says demilitarised zone constitutional

18ac. 3 February 2001, Notimex news agency, Mexico, Colombian president begins unexpected visit to DMZ to meet residents

18ad. 3 February 2001, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Political, religious leaders react to extension of demilitarised zone.

18ae. 3 February 2001, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Priest reports FARC contingent bids farewell to inhabitants of DMZ

18af. 4 February 2001, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Southern Bolivar residents reaffirm rejection of DMZ for rebels

18ag. 4 February 2001, Reuters News Service, Colombia says rights abuses by paramilitaries worse.

18ah. 6 February 2001, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Papramilitary leader reportedly supports meeting between president, FARC leader

18ai. 8 February 2001, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Colombian peace meeting ends.

18aj. 10 February 2001, El Colombiano" website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Defence ministry reports on numbers of guerrillas, paramilitaries

18ak. 10 February 2001, Guardian, Colombian death squads target British volunteers

18al. 11 February 2001, Sunday Tasmanian, Rebels agree to talk

18am. 12 February 2001, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC admit to mistakenly killing civilians in gas cylinder attacks.

18an. 12 February 2001, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Serpa to voice opposition's views on peace process at Caguan meeting

18ao. 13 February 2001, Reuters News Service, Colombia convicts soldiers for paramilitary links.

18ap. 17 February 2001, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), President says cease-fire with FARC not impossible in next 18 months.

18aq. 22 February 2001, Intravision TV Canal Uno, Bogota, Army discovers new type of explosive device set off by radio waves.

18ar. 23 February 2001, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), President Pastrana appoints new interior, energy, culture ministers.

18as. 26 February 2001, Reuters News Agency, Colombian president urges US to join peace talks

18at. 27 February 2001, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Colombian defence minister welcomes US state department's human rights report

18au. 27 February 2001, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Government considers US report on human rights to be fair

18av. 27 February 2001, Milwaukee Journal sentinel, US asked to attend rebel meetings

18aw. 28 February 2001, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC gas cylinder attack renews atmosphere of "distrust"

18ax. 28 February 2001, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), New interior minister favours talks with self-defence groups

18ay. 28 February 2001, Xinhua News Agency, Colombia reports achievements in anti-drug operation

18az. 28 February 2001, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), Regional governors divided over talks with guerrillas, paramilitaries

18ba. 2 March 2001, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC deny killing congressman Turbay, planning attack on journalist

18bb. 2 March 2001, Reuters News Service, Bomb leaves large areas of Colombia without power

18bc. 3 March 2001, Radio Cadena Nacional website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Finance minister moots commercial alternatives to counter drugs trade

18bd. 6 March 2001, Washington Times, Guerrillas gain ground Pastrana to cede land to Marxists

18be. 6 March 2001, Asia Intelligence Wire, Economy suffers as peace talks lag

18bf. 7 March 2001, Reuters News Service, Colombian ranchers see paramilitaries as salvation

18bg. 7 March 2001, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), government rejects paramilitary statements on new demilitarised zone

18bh. 8 March 2001, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Colombian attorney-general warns corrution greater problem than guerrillas

18bi. 8 March 2001, Xinhua News Agency Bulletin, Colombian peace commissioner praises meeting with ELN.

18bj. 9 March 2001, "El Tiempo" website, Bogota, (BBC Monitoring Service), FARC rebels warn of "very intense" war against pramilitary groups

18bk. 10 March 2001, ITAR-TASS world service, Colombian govt, revolt forces agree to begin peace process

18bl. 10 March 2001, Reuters News Service, Colombia rebel group suspends peace talks

18bm. 8 April 2001, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Colombian government, governors strike deal on disciplinary draft bill.

18bn. 8 April 2001, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Colombian army reports on FARC "peace tax" revenue.

18bo. 6 April 2001, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Colombian minister says paramilitary leader cannot threaten peace process.

18bp. 5 April 2001, Washington Post, A player's bid in drug war

18bq. 4 April 2001, Reuters News Service, Colombian rebels threaten US civilian "mercenaries"

18br. 3 April 2001, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Border town mayors to create "down-to-earth" policies

18bs. 17 April 2001, Reuters News Service, Colombia says rebels kidnap up to 92 from US firm

18bt. 16 April 2001, Platt's Commodity News, Two more bombings delay Cano Limon pipeline restart

18bu. 2 April 2001, Reuters News Service, Colombia reopens peace talks with ELN rebels

18bv. 5 April 2001, New Colombia News Agency (Anncol), FARC syays US trafficking charges "pretext for interventionism"

18bw. 5 April 2001, Reuters News Service, Colombian stowaways killed in flower cargo plane

18bx. 4 April 2001, Reuters News Service, Colombian army warns rebels of deportation to US

18by. 4 April 2001, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Latin American indigenous groups criticise Plan Colombia in USA

18bz. 8 May 2001, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Colombian government denies "persecution" of press.

18ca. 15 May 2001, Reuters News Service, Colombia teachers, doctors strike over IMF reform.

18cb. 19 May 2001, Agencia EFE via Comtex News, Colombian army wants stiffer anti-terrorism laws.

18cc. 15 June 2001, Reuters News Service, Colombia's congress passes controversial 'war law'.

18cd. 15 June 2001, The Financial Times, Colombia's paramilitary groups begin to feel heat..

18ce. 20 June 2001, Dow Jones International News, Colombian congress gives final OK to transform reform.

18cf. 28 June 2001, ft.com, FARC returns 240 kidnap victims.

18cg. 28 June 2001, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Defence minister pledges resistance if FARC attack bases.

18ch. 4 July 2001, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Colombian authorities regain control of Bogota's Modelo prison

18ci. 11 July 2001, Reuters News Service, Colombian refugees in fear as army fails to arrive

18cj. 16 July 2001, The Oil Daily, Bombing shuts Cano Limon again.

18ck. 17 July 2001, Reuters News Service, Colombia's ex-EU ambassador arrested over massacre.

18cl. 18 July 2001, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), President of Communications and Culture Association assassinated

18cm. 18 July 2001, Reuters News Service, Colombia gunmen take over youth jail, nab 10 minors

18cn. 18 July 2001, Hoover Institution Stanford University via Business Wire, new Hoover essay in public policy – war and governance in Colombia.

18co. 20 July 2001, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Army gives six-month death toll figures in continued rebel violence.

18cp. 20 July 2001, Xinhua News Agency Bulletin, 400 Colombian rebels killed in first half this year.

18cq. 24 July 2001, Los Angeles Times, General accused of aiding militias...

18cr. 25 July 2001, Rueters News Service, Colombian towns caught in crossfire of war...

18cs. 25 July 2001, ft.com, Pastrana set for a hectic year.

18ct. 26 July 2001, Reuters News Service, Colombia government says 2002 budget 62.5 TLN Pesos.

18cu. 1 August 2001, Agencia EFE via Comtex News, Colombian police use tear gas to disperse protesters

18cv. 2 August 2001, The Independent, Colombian guerrila renegades held for beheading of Irish teenager and friend

18cw. 3 August 2001, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Over 50 killed in FARC, paramilitary clashes in Antioqua

18cx. 5 August 2001, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Colombian police, army astonished by FARC leader's comments on security

18cy. 5 August 2001, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), Colombian government admits 'limited capacity' to handle major emergencies

18cz. 13 August 2001, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Colombian army says it has dismantled ELN intelligence centre

18da. 16 August 2001, La Vanguardia website, Barcelona, IRA reportedly used Spain's ETA as 'intermediary' with FARC

18db. 19 August 2001, Agencia EFE via Comtex News, Colombian army – European terrorists training local rebels.

18dc. 3 September 2001, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Army intelligence reveals FARC plans for "mobile columns".

18dd. 5 September 2001, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Army reports 213 minors kidnapped in first eight months of 2001.

18de. 5 September 2001, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Colombian government to consider reinstating ELN's political status

18df. 5 September 2001, Reuters News Service, Colombia's leader sees war without rebel enclave.

18dg. 6 September 2001, Irish Times, Colombia's death squads 'go political'.

18dh. 7 September 2001, Independent, London, IRA suspects 'were studying peace process' IRA suspects tell Colombians.

18di. 7 September 2001, Washington Post, Gunmen kill leader of peace panel in Colombia.

18dj. 13 September 2001, Agencia EFE via Comtex News, Kidnapped Colombian congresswoman in 'neutral' zone.

18dk. 13 September 2001, Xinhua News Agency, Colombia's catholic church to mediate peace talks.

18dl. 16 September 2001, 'El Espectador' website, (BBC Monitoring Service), NGO reports subsistence crops damaged by fumigation.

18dm. 23 September 2001, Caracol Colombia website, Bogota (BBC Monitoring Service), Colombia's Pastrana "still willing to talk" to ELN

18dn. 15 November 2001, El Escectator website (BBC Monitoring Americas), Court orders retrial of officers over 1997 massacre.

18do. 18 November 2001, Caracol Colombia ( BBC Monitoring Service), FARC will not gain road corridor to Caguan-Minister

18dp. 18 Nov 2001, BBC Worldwide Monitoring, FARC guerrilla and soldier killed in clashes in Cauca.

18dq. 18 November 2001, By Juan Forero in the New York Times, Change and fear in Colombia rights panel.

18dr. 19 November 2001, Economist Intelligence Unit, Colombia-Country Outlook.

18ds. 19 November 2001, Agencia EFE, Former General, ex-minister to vie for Colombian presidency.

18dt. 19 November 2001, Caracol Colombia (BBC Monitoring Service), Senator denounces "undeniable" FARC military presence in Colombian mountains.

18du. 21 November 2001, Reuters News Service, Colombia leader calls rebel bluff.

18dv. 21 November 2001, Agencia EFE, Colombian government ready to take back neutral zone if rebels leave.

18dw. 21 November 2001, BBC Monitoring Service, Colombia's Pastrana warns FARC government ready to reclaim DMZ.

18dx. 22 November 2001, Reuters News Service, U.N. envoy meets Colombia rebels.

18dy. 23 November 2001, report by Colombian Caracol radio web site (BBC Worldwide Monitoring), NGO names Colombian armed groups "worst armed aggressors against press".

18dz. 23 November 2001, Colombian Caracol radio web site (BBC Worldwide Monitoring), Relatives of Narino Jornalists demand explanations from Colombia's AUC.

18ca. 23 November 2001, Agencia EFE (Madrid), Colombian indian organization accuses government of "ethnocide".

18cb. 25 November 2001, El Espectador web site (BBC Worldwide Monitoring), Restrepo's candidacy changes political scene, "hits" Sanin's campaign

18cc. 25 November 2001, Agencia EFE (Madrid), Two indian leaders, two others murdered in Colombia.

18cd. 26 November 2001, Reproters Sans Frontieres web site (BBC Monitoring Media), Media watchdogs say armed groups violate press freedom.

18ce. 26 November 2001, Xinhua News Agency, FARC proposes meeting with government to resume peace talks.

18cf. 27 November 2001, BBC Monitoring International Reports, Governors propose they should be more involved in peace process.

18cg. 27 November 2001, Reuters News Service, U.N. calls Colombia's overcrowded prisons "HELL".

18ch. 28 November 2001, Agencia EFE, Colombian senator abducted by rebels is on hunger strike.

18ci. 28 November 2001, BBC Monitoring Service, President Pastrana does not rule out meeting FARC leader Marulanda

18cj. 28 November 2001, Colombian Caracol Radio (BBC Monitoring Americas), Official says 30000 people are murdered a year in armed conflict.

18ck. 29 November 2001, Reuters Limited, Colombian rebels free regional peace commissioner.

18cl. 29 November 2001, Agencia EFE, Colombian Secret Police- FARC looking to take control of country.

18cm. 30 November 2001 , BBC Worldwide Monitoring, Colombian presidential candidates are invited to meet in Spain on 11 Dec.

18cn. 27 November 2001, Latin America Weekly Report, Colombia: Politics & Violence – ELN drops conditions, agrees on agenda.

[19] Miscellaneous International Organisations' Reports: –

19a. BICC Bonn International Center for Conversion, accessed 02/03/00, The Contadora Process

19b. Pan American Health Organisation / World Health Organisation, Basic Country Health Profiles, Summaries 1999. Colombia.

19b. Pan American Health Organisation / World Health Organisation, Basic Country Health Profiles, Summaries 1999. Colombia.

19c. War Resisters' International. Refusing to bear arms. Colombia entry. WRI, 1998.

19d. The International Lesbian and Gay Association, website, world legal survey, Colombia entry (accessed 7 November 2000)

19e. The International Lesbian and Gay Association, website, Press Release 10/26/99, Colombia High Court restricts Intersex Genital Mutilation (accessed 7 November 2000)

[20] Canadian Immigration and Refugee Board Reports: –

20a. REFINFO, COL31951.E 14/5/99 Colombia: Pattern of guerrilla collection of "taxes" and whether these take the form of monthly installments or lump sums.

20b. REFINFO, COL30414.E 10/11/98 Colombia: extortion of United States oil companies by ELN and FARC guerrillas (1995-1998).

20c. REFINFO, COL29843.E 10/8/98 Colombia: Measures taken by the government to combat the drug trade...

20d. REFINFO, COL29847.E 11/8/98 Colombia: Situation of blacks, particularly reports of racially motivated killings (1994-1998)

20e. REFINFO, COL29835.E 6/8/98 Colombia: Forced recruitment (into FARC)

20f. REFINFO, COL29839.E 7/8/98 Colombia: Whether (FARC) controlled the Department of Meta in 1996.

20g. REFINFO, COL33167.E 29/11/99 Colombia: State protection available to persons who do not cooperate with drug traffickers who attempt to recruit their services.

20h. REFINFO, COL32196.E 16/07/99 Colombia: Whether a former military officer could obtain state protection if he/she were being pursued by rebels or drug dealers.

20i. REFINFO, COL32839.E 30/09/99 Colombia: The role of the Procuraduria General de la Nation, the Vice Public Prosecutor and the Fiscalia General de la Nacion, and their degree of judicial independence (1998)

20j. REFINFO, COL32840.E 1/10/99 Colombia: Legal redress available to a person who believes that he/she had been denied the right to due legal process in 1998.

20k. REFINFO, COL32197.E 15/07/99 Colombia: measures against the drugs trade, the implication of government corruption, and links between the Armed Forces and drug dealers (1998-1999)

20l. REFINFO, COL32100.E 22/06/99 Colombia: whether persons who have paid extortion to guerrillas are perceived as guerrilla collaborators or sympathizers by paramilitaries, army or police.

20m. REFINFO, COL26972.E 11/06/97 Colombia: Information on whether a man who left Colombia as a minor (age 17) would be required to do military service upon his return 20 years later...

20n. REFINFO, COL26753.E 16/05/97 Colombia: Information on the situation of members of the Church of Latter Day Saints (Mormons), especially in Bogota.

20o. REFINFO, COL25028.E 13/09/96 Colombia: information on the Lebanese community.

20p. REFINFO, 20 September 1999, COL32829.E, The Meta Civic Committee for Human rights (Comite Civico de Derechos Humanos de Meta, CCDHM)...

20q. REFINFO, 30 September 1999, COL32839.E, The role of the Procuraduria General de la Nacion, the Vice Public Prosecutor and the Fiscalia General de la Nacion, and their degree of judicial independence (1998)

20r. REFINFO, 29 November 1999, COL33167.E, State protection available to persons who do not cooperate with drug traffickers who attempt to recruit their services.

20s. REFINFO, 21 January 2000, COL33554.E, Government measures to combat kidnapping of businessmen for ransom (1998-1999)

20t. REFINFO, 25 January 2000, COL33574.E, The Comando Milicias Urbanas (Urban Military Command or Commando); whether it is related to (FARC)...

20u. REFINFO, 24 January 2000, COL33287.E, Protection and redress available to persons threatened with kidnapping by guerrillas (1998-1999).

20v. REFINFO, 3 February 2000, COL33848.E, Forcible recruitment and extortion by guerrillas...

20w. REFINFO, 8 February 2000, COL33769.E, Individuals to whom Law No. 294 on domestic violence applies (1999-February 2000)

20x. REFINFO, 14 March 2000, COL33987.E, Kidnappings by (FARC) in Bogota...

20y. REFINFO, 14 April 2000, COL34221.E, Whether it is a criminal offence to pay a ransom demand to a guerrilla group...

20z. REFINFO, 7 April 2000, COL34143.E, Procedure for obtaining a discharge from the military career by an officer of the armed forces.

20aa. REFINFO, 3 April 2000, COL34040.E, Whether the only son of Colombian parents is exempted from military service.

20ab. REFINFO, 1 May 2000, COL34216.E,Names of towns and provinces where the night-time curfew was imposed in July 1999 (follow-up to COL33987.E of 14 March 2000)

20ac. REFINFO, 17 May 2000, COL34359.E, A campaign of terror against persons associated with the University of Antioquia by the (AUC), May – August 1999.

20ad. REFINFO, 20 December 1999, COL33434.E, Activities of the ELN, forcible recruitment of young males, and state protection available to those who refuse to join the ELN.

20ae. REFINFO, 26 May 2000, COL34431.FE, (Police and FARC actions, police protection, etc around Villavicencio, 1999 to May 2000)

20af. REFINFO, 15 September 2000, COL35058.E, (Paramilitary groups' operations, etc, 1998 – August 2000)

20ag. REFINFO, 13 May 1999, COL31867.E, (Departamento Administrativo de Seguridad – DAS – Administrative Security Department)

20ah. REFINFO, 8 August 2000, COL35097.E, Requirements that must be met by a graduate from medicine studies before being licenced to practice medicine, such as internships or social service.

20ai. REFINFO, 14 August 2000, COL35096.E, Targeting of medical doctors by armed groups, particularly guerrillas: possibility of state protection for targeted doctors.

20aj. REFINFO, COL37210.E 11 July 2001, Colombia: Status of the application and enforcement of the law on domestic violence (Law 294 of 1996),

[21] Sources on Healthcare in Colombia: –

21a. Fiebre Reumatica Perez Starusta, MD, Facultad de Salud, Universidad del Valle, Cali [n.d.] at fepafem.org (accessed 25/06/01)

21b. Sociedad Colombiana de Pediatria, at "www.scp.com.co" (accessed 25/06/01)

21c. Sociedad Colombiana de Pediatria, at "www.scp.com.co", Regionales (accessed 25/06/01)

21d. Liga Central Contra la Epilepsia (LICCE), at "www.epilepsia,org" , front page and information for users. (accessed 26/06/01)

21e. Asociacion Colombiana de Fisioterapia (Ascofi) at "www.ascofi.org.co" , front page, (accessed 25/06/01)

21f. Asociacion de medicos Investigadores en terapeuticas alternativas (Amit), front page and list of speakers at major forthcoming conference. (accessed 25/06/01)

21g. Federacion Latinoamericana de Sociedades de Cancerologia, (Flasca), details of key Colombian cancer contacts. (accessed 26/06/01)

21h. Salud Colombia, Equipos de imagenologia at "www.saludcolombia.com" (accessed 26/06/01)

21i. Movimiento por la Salud Publica en Colombia, at "www.colnodo.apc.org/ ~movsalud/" front page and organisation of the movement. (accessed 26/06/01)

21j. Laboratio Clinico Medico Espinosa Gomez Ltda, at "www.encolombia.com", front page and list of services. (accessed 26/06/01)

21k. CECOLFES – El Centro Colombiano de Fertilidad y Esterilidad, at "www.cecolfes.org" front page and list of services. (accessed 26/06/01)

21l. Medicina Nuclear, Hospital Universitario San Vicente de Paul,

21m. Instituto para Ninos Ciegos y Sordos de Cali, "www.inst-ciegossordos.com.co", front page and list of services. (accessed 26/06/01)

21n. Private eye clinics at Silentes.com and the Clinica de Avances en Oftalmologia – "www.ojos.com.co" (accessed 28/06/01)

21o. List of Essential Medicines as defined under The Compulsory Health Plan (the OPS), at www.col.ops-oms.org/medicamentos/legislacion/R1830.html, (accessed on 4/10/01)

21p. Association Francois-Xavier Bagnoud, Humanitarian Action: Colombia, at www.fxb.org/action/colombia/, (accessed at 13/2/2002).

21q. Colombia, Corporacion AVRE – apoyo a Victimas Pro-Recuperation emocional (support for victims for emotional recovery) at "www. Irct.org/update/centre_update_colombia_01.html", (accessed on 13/2/02)

21r. El Hospital Universitario San Vicente de Paul, at www.elhopital.org.co/introcci.htm, (accessed on 13/2/02)

21s. Centro Medico Imbanaco, at www.imbanaco.com/banner.htm, (accessed on 13/2/2002)

21t. Hospital La Maria at www.lamaria.org.co/, (accessed on 13/2/2002).

21u. Asthma Mortality in Colombia by Candelaria Vergara and Luis Caraballo, published in ANNALS OF ALLERGY, ASTHMA, & IMMUNOLOGY, 1998, pp. 55-60.

[22] Reuters Business Briefing, 2002: –

22a. 11 January 2002, New York Times, At the rebel-held zone in Colombia, alarm is mounting as a showdown threatens.

22b. 12 January 2002, By Christian Miller, Times Staff Writer, Colombians in rebel zone fear for their safety.

22c. 13 January 2002, Reuters News Service, Chronology-Colombia peace efforts with FARC rebels.

22d. 15 January 2002, Xinhua News Agency Bulletin, Military Control in neutral zone to be stepped up.

22e. 18 January 2002, The Economist Intelligence Unit, Colombia Politics-peace talks salvaged, but respite may be brief.

22f. 18 January 2002, M2 Presswire, Amnesty International-Colombia-No peace and no future without human rights.

22g. 24 January 2002, Colombian Caracol radio website (BBC Monitoring Americas), Military forces head says defending infrastructure "top priority".

22h. 24 January 2002, Colombian radio website (BBC Monitoring Americas), Mayor steps up security as FARC attack Bogota dam.

22i. 24 January 2002, EFE News Service, IAPA worried about journalists' murders in Colombia, Mexico

22j. 26 January 2002, EFE News Service, Countries backing Colombia peace talks to hold emergency meeting.

22k. 30 January 2002, Reuters News Service, Colombians protest FARC rebels with pots and pans.

22l. 31 January 2002, Dow Jones International News, Colombia tilts right as rebels continue war.

22m. 9 February 2002, Washington Times Library, Colombia under siege.

22n. 14 January 2002, Agencia EFE, Nine policemen, one civilian killed in FARC attack near Ecuador.

22o. 16 January, 2002, EFE News Service, Colombia's FARC kidnaps six in nature preserve.

22p. 18 January 2002, EFE News Services, Six soldiers, one civilian and dozens of rebels die in Colombia.

22q. 11 January 2002, EFE News Service, Colombian government and ELN delegates meet in Cuba.

22r. 12 February 2002, Reuters News Service, Colombians Refugee tide grew in 2001- study.

22s. 12 February 2002, Agencia EFE, Some 1.5 million Colombians have been displaced.

22t. 15 February 2002, BBC Worldwide Monitoring, New Humanitarian orders demand action to help displaced persons.

22u. 15 February 2002, Agencia EFE, U.N. Rights officer worried about refugees in Colombia.

22v. 16 February 2002, El Espectator, Clashes between paramilitary groups displaced 9000 in Northern Colombia.

22x. 26 February 2002, Latin American Andean Group, Colombia: politics & violence- Pastrana bites the bullet and orders military to invade FARC's 'Despeje'.

22y. 25 February 2002, By Ruth Morris and Andrew Bounds, Swithzerland: Conquering army brings fear to former rebel haven.

22z. 5 March 2002, Latin American Weekly Report, Colombia: politics & violence – military campaign moves into phase II – soldiers given special powers to......

22aa. 10 March 2002, By Scott Wilson in Washington Post, Colombia: violence mars Colombia race – security forces strive to protect candidates and voters.

22ab. 4 March 2002, Reuters News Service, Colombia: update 1 – Colombian human rights record remains poor.

22ac. 3 March 2002, EFE News Service, FARC – 82 paramilitaries killed in joint campaign with ELN.

22ad. 10 March 2002, EFE News Service, FARC steps up attacks on eve of legislative vote.

22ae. 18 March 2002, EFE News Service, at least 37 FARC rebels have deserted since talks ended.

22af. 18 March 2002, By James Wilson, Financial Times, Rebels suspected in death of Colombian archbishop.

22ag. 19 March 2002, EFE News Service, FARC defies responsibility in Colombian archbishop's murder.

22ah. 19 March 2002, Washington Times, FARC leaders indicted in U.S. – Ashcroft cites drug, terror link.

22ai. 20 March 2002, EFE News Service, Two farmers, one bank employee killed in crossfire in Colombia.

22aj. 20 March 2002, EFE News Service, Colombian presidential candidates favour extraditing FARC chief.

22ak. 21 March 2002, EFE News Service, 21 killed in clashes with FARC near border with Venezuela.

22al. 22 March 2002, Los Angeles Times, 38 are killed in Colombia fighting.

22am. 22 March 2002, EFE News Service, Colombian air force – we have proof of FARC presence in Venezuela.

22an. 23 March 2002 , EFE News Services, Colombian army, rebels continue clashes along Venezuelan border.

22ao. 23 March 2002, EFE News Services, Colombian troops arrest seven for Feb. 02 hijacking.

22ap. 27 March 2002, By Scott Wilson in Washington Post, Colombia's hit-and-run war-rebels' new tactic avoids contact with army, focuses on cities.

22aq. 28 March 2002, EFE News Service, army destroys FARC drug production compound in Putumayo.

22ar. 31 March 2002, EFE News Service, Colombian rebels destroy bridges, isolating Carribbean coast.

22as. 31 March 2002, BBC Monitoring Service, Colombian authorities to launch offensive against guerrilla drug production area.

22at. 22 March 2002, Reuters News Service, Colombia's anti-rebel Uribe launches election bid.

22au. 10 March 2002, EFE News Service, Reacting to story, Uribe denies links to paramilitary, far right.

22av. 2 April 2002, By Jason Webb, Reuters News Service, Colombian candidate fights paramilitary, drug talk.

22aw. 5 April 2002, The Economist Intelligence Unit, Uribe charges ahead.

22ay. 26 March 2002, EFE News Service, Red Cross makes contacts with Colombian candidate's kidnappers.

22az. 21 March 2002, BBC Monitoring, ELN threatens Norte de Santander radios that air publicity for Uribe.

22ba. 19 April 2002, EFE News Service, Colombian Government, ELN regroup for separate talks.

22bb. 20 April 2002, BBC Monitoring Americas, Peace Commissioner comments on peace talks with ELN.

22bc. 21 April 2002, EFE News Service, At least six people kidnapped by ELN guerrillas.

22bd. 18 April 2002, Economist Intelligence Unit, More US aid sought to fight rebels.

22be. 23 April 2002, BBC Monitoring Americas, Colombian armed groups wage territorial war in Tolima.

22bf. 12 April 2002, Washington Times, Bush seeks wider role vs. guerrillas.

22bg. 12 April 2002, EFE News Service, U.S. wants obstacles removed to give more aid to Colombia.